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 CONCEPTS FOR LATIN SYNTAX Language Revised Fall 2013 38.1 Latin Nouns: Endings Nom Gen Dat Acc Abl Common Endings Sg. -s / —a -i/-s -i -m — / -e N: -m / — N: -m / — Pl. -i / -es -um -is / -bus -s -is / -bus N: -a N: -a Endings by Stem Type - Singular -a a- a-(i→)e a-(i→)e a-m a- -o (o→)u-s /o-i o-/i (o→)u-m o- N: (o→)u-m -e e-s e-i e-i e-m e- -u u-s u-s u-i u-m u- N: u- N:u-/i N: uC C-s b C-is C-i C-em C-e N: C- N: C- -i i-s / /i-s i-s /i-i /i-em /i-e c N: /i / (i→)e- N: /i / (i→)e- N: iEndings by Stem Type - Plural -a a-(i→)e a-rum /a-is a-s /a-is -o /o-i o-rum /o-is o-s /o-is N: /o-a N: /o-a -e e-/es e-rum e-bus e-s e-bus -u u-/es u-um /u-ibus u-s /u-ibus N: u-a N: u-a C C-es C-um C-ibus C-es C-ibus N: C-a N: C-a -i /i-es i-um i-bus /i-es i-bus N: i-a N: i-a aThe notation “-s / —” means that this form either takes the ending -s or remains as the bare stem. bLiquids (l, r ) reject the -s (amor- → amor ). Dentals (d, t) drop out before -s (aestat- → aestas). Usually -n drops out and the -s is lost (leon- → leo). c In the ablative singular adjectives always use the bare stem, even when modifying masculine and feminine nouns: leone gravi. CONCEPTS IN LATIN SYNTAX Contents Introduction 1 I THE SIMPLE SENTENCE 3 1 The Nominal Sentence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 2 The Verbal Sentence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 3 Subject . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 4 Predicate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 5 Vocative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 6 Nominative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 7 Accusative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 8 Ablative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 9 Dative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 10 Genitive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 11 Pronoun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 12 Adjective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 13 Preposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 14 Finite Verb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 15 Verbal Noun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 16 Participle (Verbal Adjective) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 17 Adverbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 18 Interjection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 19 Conjunction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 II THE COMPOUND SENTENCE 75 20 The Compound Sentence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 III THE COMPLEX SENTENCE 77 21 Formation of the Complex Sentence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 22 Subordinating Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 23 Function of the Subordinate Clause . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 24 Mood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 25 Si Clause . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 26 Reported Speech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 27 Sequence of Tenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 ii Introduction Several arts have speech in some way as their object. This is clear from the various names they were given in Greek. Rhetoric, in Greek the ‘rhetorical art’, took its name from the act of speaking, er¯o. Logic, the ‘logical art’, was derived from logos, speech itself. And grammar, the ‘grammatical art’, got its name from grammata, letters, as if by this art one knows how to read and write. Still some difference between these arts is readily apparent. Logic is only interested in speech insofar as it helps us to come to some truth about things by ordering our thoughts. The logician therefore points out errors in argument and faults in definition, by which his thoughts are formed. The rhetorician always has persuasion as his purpose. For this reason his concern with words and arguments is never separated from the power that they have to move us to act in one way rather than another, to pass a new law or to spare the defendant. He therefore concentrates his effort on exercise of his speaking abilities. Grammar, however, takes its name from letters, even though its object clearly exists in spoken language, where the grammarian finds various things to correct. Still, the name suggests that this art considers aspects of speech that remain even in written language. The most obvious of these from written language itself are the sounds proper to each language. Close to this are the various patterns used for the various forms of the ‘same’ word: ‘I am, you are, he is’ or ‘we, our, us’. These two parts of grammar, concerned merely with sounds or with the formation of words, are called phonology and morphology, respectively. Yet another aspect of speech is more commonly associated with grammar, one concerned primarily with the order between or among words in a 1 Introduction sentence. For this reason, the Greeks named this order sun-taxis or syntax, a putting together, in Latin compositio. As in any ‘composition’, syntax attends to putting together parts that ‘fit’ each other and thereby ‘fit into’ the whole, which in this case is a sentence. The purpose of this volume is to discuss and illustrate the principles used in Latin composition, especially as needed in reading the language. Since most of those using this volume will be English speakers, reference to the principles of that language will be discussed for a variety of reasons. Now syntax, the principal part of grammar, knows the principles by which the proper composition of sentences comes about. But sentences exhibit many levels of composition, as do natural bodies. Thus, even the simplest bodies, the elements, are composed of ‘sub-atomic’ parts, as well as of some matter and an essence or form, so the first order of composition in language produces what is called the simple sentence. The first part of this book, nineteen sections, addresses the principles used in this order of composition. Now in the composition of natural bodies, the elements sometimes come together in mere mixtures, as salt and water mix in salt water, and sometimes in new substances, as hydrogen and oxygen make up water and again an acid and a base make up a salt. Likewise, in grammar simple sentences sometimes unite in a manner that maintains the ‘substantial’ independence of each sentence in a ‘compound sentence’, such as ‘Jack went up the hill and Jill fetched a pail of water.’ One short section, the twentieth, concerns the compound sentence. At other times simple sentences are joined such that the independence of one or both is compromised: ‘Jack went up the hill, while Jill fetched a pail of water,’ or ‘Jill saw that Jack went up the hill,’ and again ‘Jill saw Jack go up the hill.’ Such a sentence is called a ‘complex sentence’, the subject of sections twenty-one through twenty-seven. In this text, marginal notes refer students to further reading in three reputable Latin grammars: Allen and Greenough’s New Latin Grammar (notated as ‘A’), Woodcock’s A New Latin Syntax (notated as ‘W’), and Henle’s Latin Grammar (notated as ‘H’). 2 I THE SIMPLE SENTENCE Even the simple sentence, the first complete order of syntax or composition, allows for various ‘levels’ of attention. Some attention to the whole sentence itself is necesary. This allows for distinction of the ‘kinds’ of sentence, insofar the whole is characterized by one kind of word or another and according to the means of composition. Such distinctions are made in part A, sections one and two. Attention to the parts themselves, from which sentences are composed, can focus on the role these parts play in the sentence or on the character they have in themselves. Considered according to the roles they play in sentences, a word—though sometimes a phrase, and even a subordinate clause in a complex sentences—is called a ‘part of a sentence’. These parts are discussed in part B, sections three and four. Considered according to the character they have in themselves, these parts are called ‘parts of speech’, which are considered in part C, sections five through nineteen. One must keep in mind, however, that even when considered according to their intrinisic character, words are always ordered to sentences and have no utterly independent use. Thus, this distinction between part of a sentence and part of speech considers a word’s relation to the sentence more and less immediately. Attention to a word as part of a sentence is attention to its proximate order to the sentence. Attention to it as a part of speech is attention to its remote order to sentences. Kinds of Sentence A sentence ‘says something about something.’ This definition of a sentence allows us to distinguish two fundamental parts of the sentence, the subject 3 I. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE A 272 A 319b and the predicate. The subject is that about which one says something. In this sense the subject is ‘under’ (sub-) the predicate. The predicate is what is said (or predicated) about something, from the Latin prae- (about) dico (to speak). The sentence says something about something by joining the subject and the predicate. This is called ‘predicating’. Since the predicate does what is most essential to the sentence, that is, it ‘says something’ about another, the subject, sentences are distinguished according to the kind of word that serves as the principal part of the predicate. 1 The Nominal Sentence Nominal sentences have some ‘form’ of noun as the principal part of the predicate. This must, however, be understood broadly. A noun or pronoun may serve as the principal part of the predicate in various ‘cases’, such as the nominative in ‘I am he,’ or ‘This is Socrates,’ and again the genitive in ‘This is John’s’. Adjectives can also serve as the principal part of the predicate: ‘Socrates was short.’ Adverbs are derived from adjectives or pronouns and they too may serve as the principal part of the predicate: ‘The sun is up,’ or ‘I was there!’ Prepositional phrases, themselves adverbial in origin, can be used in a similar manner: ‘The sun is in the sky,’ and ‘I was on the moon.’ Even subordinate clauses may serve as the principal part of a predicate: ‘That is what I mean.’ 1.1 By Apposition Some nominal sentences join subject and predicate by merely placing or ‘positioning’ (apposition) the predicate next to the subject, such as ‘All aboard!’ or ‘Lovely day!’ These are called appositional sentences. There is no copula or linking verb. Apposition is sufficient to cause predication. Such sentences are more common in Latin than in English. Yet in English they are still often used in emphatic statement. This is sometimes done by a reversal of the usual order of subject and predicate: ‘Lousy shot!’ Newspaper headlines are often appositional sentences: ‘War Imminent,’ ‘Stocks Up.’ Appositional sentences can have any of the kinds of predicate mentioned above, as these examples show: 4 2. The Verbal Sentence ‘Jones New Champion’ ‘Boring day!’ ‘Trouble there.’ ‘Elbows off the table!’ Sanctus, sanctus, sanctus Dominus Deus Sabaoth! Holy, holy, holy Lord God of Hosts! Gloria in excelsis Deo! Glory to God in the highest! 1.2 By Copula (Linking Verb) Nominal sentences that employ a copula or linking verb in the predicate are called copulative sentences. The copula or linking verb signifies little or nothing that can be contributed to the predicate. In the purest form of copula, all that remains of the verb’s force is the power to join the predicate to the subject. The most important and most common of copulas is the word ‘is’ or ‘to be’. In Latin the verb sum, esse (to be) is the most common linking verb. Yet there are other linking verbs: fio, fieri (to become), for example, and verbs meaning ‘to appear’, ‘to be called’, and so on. ‘The book looks old.’ ‘This tastes sour.’ ‘The man grew old.’ ‘The cow ran dry.’ ‘The man is called Socrates.’ English excels in the formation of linking verbs. Only a few of these have exact counterparts in Latin. 2 The Verbal Sentence Sentences in which the principal part of the predicate is a finite are called verbal sentences. A verb is finite if it is determined to a subject by person. Other properties of the verb (number, tense or time, aspect, and voice, in particular) can be found in ‘non-finite’ parts of the verb. For example, ‘to cut’ and ‘to be cut’; ‘cutting’, ‘having cut’, ‘having been cut’. In English, the non-finite parts of the verb do not have number; in Latin, however, participles do include number: amatus (M), amata (F). 2.1 Transitive Verb The common grammatical term ‘transitive’ comes from the Latin word trans-ire, ‘to go over’. A verb is transitive if it is able to represent what it signifies as passing into or affecting another without the help of a preposition. ‘The dog bit me.’ ‘He walks the dog Sundays.’ A 272 A 273.1 5 I. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE A 273.2 A 207-8 H 332-3, 741 W 208-213 Many transitive verbs also have intransitive uses. ‘He walks Sundays.’ Note, however, that sometimes a transitive sense is often presented without an explicit object when it proposes some frequent or habitual action. ‘That dog bites.’ An object is clearly implied or understood. Any transitive verb must be completed by an object. Thus all transitive verbs require some kind of completion or ‘complement’. The exception of frequent or habitual action just mentioned must be kept in mind. 2.2 Intransitive Verb A verb is intransitive if it does not, by its own power, represent what it signifies as passing into or affecting another. ‘We run.’ ‘We laugh.’ Many intransitive verbs can do so with the help of prepositions. ‘I ran into you.’ But some intransitive verbs are linking verbs. ‘He is a bore.’ Again, existential ‘is’ is an intransitive verb. ‘There is a problem.’ ‘Ghosts exist.’ (a) Some intransitive verbs are complete and therefore need no ‘complement’: ‘I ran, you walked.’ (b) Others can be drawn to an object with the help of prepositions: ‘I ran into the wall.’ (c) Yet others need to be completed, not by an object, but by something identified, more or less immediately, with the subject: ‘He is a bore.’ ‘The dog is right there.’ ‘He lives there; we dwell here.’ 2.3 Impersonal Verbs Certain verbs are called ‘impersonal’. These verbs exist only in third person forms and rarely in the plural. They were called impersonal because they never used a pronoun as a subject in Latin. These verbs are, however, formed as third-person forms, almost always singular, and must therefore be included under finite verbs. E.g. Pluit. ‘It is raining.’ In English, the term is regularly used of verbs only used in the thirdperson, even when they do employ the pronoun ‘it’. English examples include ‘It rains.’ ‘It pains me to tell you.’ ‘It is necessary that he be here’. Often, as in the last two examples, subject of thought follows the impersonal verb, either in a subordinate clause or some other form. In some cases the subject is merely obscure: ‘It pains me to tell you.’ = ‘To tell you pains me.’ ‘It is necessary that he be here’. = ‘That he be here is necessary.’ 6 3. Subject Latin has a number of such verbs. As in English, the subject is often present, although difficult to recognize. Parts of Sentence Various grammatical terms describe the role or ‘part’ that a word or phrase plays in a sentence. Here the word or phrase is considered according to a particular role that it plays in a sentence or in a kind of sentence. Hence, different ‘parts of speech’ or different forms of one ‘part of speech’ may be the same part of a sentence. Thus, a noun, an adjective, or an adverb may serve as the principal part of the predicate in a nominal sentence, ‘Socrates was short. But he was a philosopher. He also was in the Peloponnesian War.’ Again, a noun is usually the subject of a sentence: ‘Jack went up the hill.’ But an infinitive or a gerund, even one that takes an object, can serve as subject: ‘Fetching water was less pleasant.’ Since the sentence has two principal parts, the subject and the predicate, the parts of a sentence are considered in relation to the one or the other. Some parts of the sentence serve immediately as the subject or the predicate. Other parts ‘enlarge’ the subject or predicate. Though such enlargements cannot be a subject or predicate themselves, they in some way assist the word or words that immediately have these roles. Yet enlargement itself can occur in many ways: apposition, modification, completion, extension. 3 Subject The subject of a sentence is what the sentence is about. It is most often a noun or a composition of nouns: ‘Jack jumped.’ ‘Jack and Jill went up the hill.’ But often it is an adjective used as a noun (substantively): ‘The poor are many.’ Yet, in Latin as in English, the infinitive or a gerund can also serve as a subject: ‘To jump would be dangerous.’ ‘Jumping is good exercise.’ 7 I. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE L 1038 A 282 H 473 3.1 Simple or Complex The subject of a sentence may be simple: ‘Jack jumped.’ ‘The poor are many.’ ‘Jumping is good exercise.’ A simple subject remains simple even if it is modified by apposition or modification: ‘Jack, the tall boy, jumped.’ ‘Jolly Jack jumped.’ The subject is complex when it consists of more than one part usually joined by a conjunction: ‘Jack and Jill went up the hill.’ The complex subject need not imply a complex sentence. 3.2 Enlargement of Subject The mere subject can be added to or ‘enlarged’ in various ways. 3.21 Apposition to the Subject Apposition is the placing (‘position’) of one word or phrase next to (‘ad-’ → ‘ap-’) another. This usually has the purpose of clarifying or elaborating upon the previous word: ‘My uncle, the tall man there,. . . ’ ‘My uncle, the famous writer,. . . ’ Note that here apposition describes a kind of enlargement. Apposition also causes the appositional sentence, though such apposition is not enlargement. In the appositional sentence the predicate is joined to the subject by apposition: ‘Lousy shot!’ Apposition to the subject clarifies or adds something to the subject prior to predication. Apposition can happen anywhere in a sentence, though it is most common with nouns and perhaps in the subject. 3.211 Adverb modifying the act of apposition Sometimes the word or words in apposition are introduced by an adverb that qualifies, not what is said in apposition, but the act of apposition: ‘My uncle, namely, Sam Brown. . . ’ In Latin, such words are sometimes contractions of entire sentences: scilicet ← scire licet ‘this lets you know’ videlicet ← videre licet ‘this lets you see’. Less clear is the use of the phrase ‘that is’ to introduce apposition: ‘The battle, that is, the one in Gettysburg. . . ’. 8 3. Subject 3.22 Modification As with apposition, the word or phrase that modifies is (usually) placed next to the word it modifies. But, unlike enlargement by apposition, enlargement by modification makes a new whole of the modified and the modifying: ‘the white book’; ‘my uncle Joe’ (modification) as opposed to ‘my uncle, Joe’ (apposition). 3.221 Modification by an Adjective The most common modification of a noun serving as subject is by an adjective: ‘the white book’. Such modification can occur anywhere a noun is used: ‘The white book is new.’ ‘I read it in a long book.’ 3.222 Modification by a Noun (principally the genitive) Often the possessive or genitive form of a noun modifies another noun: ‘John’s book’. Vir magni virtutis. . . , A man of great virtue. . . In Latin the ablative is sometimes, though rarely, used to describe something: serpens immani corpore. . . , a serpent with a huge body. . . Also rare is the possessive dative signifying to whose advantage something exists: Philocomasio custos, ‘the guardian to Philocomasius, Philocomasius’s guardian’; Caesari ad pedes, ‘at the feet to Caesar, at Caesar’s feet’. In English, though never in Latin, the ‘nominative’ form of a noun commonly modifies another noun: ‘cat food’, ‘boot sale’. The noun may have the force of a genitive (and may even be an ancient genitive) or perhaps the force of an adjective. This relation is signified by stregthening the accent of the modifying word and lessening that of the modified word: ‘cat food’ rather than ‘the cat’s food’; ‘stonebridge’ rather than ‘stone bridge’. 3.223 Modification by a Prepositional Phrase A prepositional phrase used as an adjective can modify a noun: ‘the man in the room’. This is another way in which a noun can modify another noun. A 276 H 477 A 276 H 680-99 W 72 A 277 H 926-31 9 I. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE W 208 3.3 An ‘Impersonal’ Verb without a Subject Impersonal verbs, which are verbs used only in the third person, are sometimes, though not always, used without an implicit subject: ‘It rains.’ In Latin, Pluit. 4 Predicate 4.1 Quantity of Predicate The predicate may be simple or complex. 4.11 Simple Predicate The predicate may be simple and thus consist of a single finite verb (with or without a complement or enlargement) or a single noun or adjective (either of which may be modified): ‘Jack jumped.’ ‘Jack jumped the fence.’ ‘Tall Jack jumped.’ 4.12 Complex Predicate Again, the predicate may be complex: two finite verbs (‘Jack jumped and stumbled.’) or two nominal forms (‘He is old but foolish.’) A complex predicate does not imply a complex sentence. 4.2 Complete and Incomplete Verbs Some verbs have a meaning that is complete in themselves and by themselves can serve as a predicate. Others are incomplete and must be completed by another word or words to have force as a predicate. 4.3 Enlargement of Verb: Complement and Extension In the predicate, enlargement of the verb occurs in two ways. When the force of a verb is insufficient as a predictate it must be completed by a ‘complement’. When its force is sufficient, it can be ‘extended’ by adverbs and phrases. 10 4. Predicate A ‘complement’ completes a verb. In most cases this will be a finite verb completed by a direct object: Vergilius librum scribit. Vergil is writing a book. An ‘extension’ develops the predicate’s finite verb, though it is not needed to make a complete predicate: Vergilius de floribus scribit. Vergil is writing about flowers. But Vergilius scribit. Vergil is writing. N.B. A verbal noun (infinitive, gerund, or supine) or a verbal adjective (participle) can be completed in any of the ways a finite verb can be completed. 4.4 Complements in Verbal Sentences In a verbal sentence the finite verb is completed in three principal ways: the direct object, the indirect object, and the complementary infinitive. 4.41 Direct Object The direct object represents something as the term or object of the ‘action’ signified by the verb. The most common case used to represent something as the direct object of the action signified by the verb is the accusative. This case generally represents what it signifies as the term of some movement. Vergilius librum scribit. Vergil is writing a book. Certain verbs (see 10.2) can be completed with an adverbial genitive. For example, the verb egeo, egere can be completed by an adverbial genitive used with verbs of filling and their opposites. Deus meus es tu, quoniam bonorum meorum non eges. ‘You are my God, because you do not need the things good for me.’ Less commonly the dative case is used to complete a verb as its direct object. This is most common when a prefix is added to a transitive verb so that the compound is used in a metaphorical sense. Sequor te. ‘I follow you.’ But: Obsequor tibi. ‘I obey you.’ H 1007-10 W 1 A 274, 387 H 745-51 W 1, 13 A 350-8 H 706-16 W 73 A367-8 H738-741 W62 A 410 H 785 W 41(8), 43(7) 11 I. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE A 274, 362 H 736-7, 1011 W 61 W 22-23 The ablative case can complete a verb as its direct object if the meaning of the verb agrees with one of the sense of the ablative. Sometimes in Latin, deponent verbs (Cf. 14.44) take an ‘object’ in the accusative. But often they use an instrumental ablative. The instrumental ablative here represents the object as the instrument by which the subject affects itself. Two important deponent verbs employ this construction: fruor, frui, to enjoy, and utor, uti, to use: [Deus] non ergo fruitur nobis, sed utitur. ‘God therefore does not enjoy us but uses us.’ The active forms of some verbs are completed by the ablative of separation rather than the accusative. In such cases separation is implied in the meaning of the verb, such as egeo: Lux non eget aliarum rerum nitore. Light does not need the brightness of other things. 4.42 Indirect Object Though an indirect object is not strictly necessary to the completion of a verb, it has the force of completing the sense of the verb. In Latin the dative is the case used for the indirect object. 4.43 Complementary (Prolative) Infinitive A complementary infinitive completes a finite verb: ‘I want to drive.’ Volo volare. I want to fly. 4.5 Complements in Nominal Sentences The predicates in nominal sentences are often distinguished as predicate nouns or predicate adjectives. (The predicate noun is also called the predicate nominative, though these should not be identified.) But many nominal sentences also have adverbs or prepositional phrases as the principal part of the predicate: ‘A triangle is on the board.’ ‘The sun is up.’ These can both be called predicate adverbs. For in these sentences prepositional phrases serve as adverbs. 12 4. Predicate 4.51 Predicate Nominative The predicate noun is called a predicate nominative when it agrees with its nominative subject in case. Such a predicate states what the subject is: ‘Plato is a philosopher.’ ‘Pluto is a god or a dog or a planet.’ ‘White is a color.’ 4.52 Predicate Adjective The predicate adjective takes the nominative case to agree with its nominative subject: ‘Plato is wise.’ ‘Pluto is furry.’ ‘White is bright.’ Such adjectives do not merely modify. Rather, they tell us what is being ‘said’ about the subject. 4.53 Predicate Adverb The mere adverb and the prepositional phrase used adverbially are called predicate adverbs by those grammarians who recognize this rubric. Sometimes adverbs serve as the predicate of a nominal sentence: ‘He is here.’ ‘The sun is up.’ Sursum corda! ‘Hearts upward!’ Sometimes a prepositional phrase serves as the predicate of a nominal sentence: ‘He is in the room.’ Hosanna in excelsis. ‘Hosanna in the highest.’ 4.54 Predicate (Predicative) Genitive Sometimes possessive or genitive form of a noun serves as the predicate of a nominal sentence: ‘The book is John’s.’ Liber Ioannis est. This is yet more common in Latin: Accidentis est inesse. ‘To be in [another] is of the accident.’ (= is proper to the accident.) Sapientis est ordinare. To order is of the wise man. (= belongs to the wise man.) 4.55 Predicate (Predicative) Dative In Latin the dative can serve as the predicate of a nominal sentence: Hoc telo est. ‘This is for a weapon.’ In English translation a prepositional phrase is usually needed. H 1006 H 1006 W 72(i)(iii) A 373 H 725 W 63, 67-68 13 I. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE H 466 H 925 4.6 Extensions An ‘extension’ develops the predicate’s finite verb, though it is not needed to make a complete predicate: Vergilius de floribus scribit. Vergil is writing about flowers. But Vergilius scribit. Vergil is writing. 4.61 Adverb An adverb first modifies a verb, though some adverbs modify adjectives or other adverbs. (Some, such as ‘very’ in English, no longer modify verbs: ‘verily’ → ‘very’.) N.B. One must attend to whether the adverb modifies the verb ‘absolutely’, or in relation to another part of the sentence, such as the subject or the object. ‘He runs well.’ (Abs.) ‘He runs short distances well.’ (Relative to obj.) ‘Only teachers know.’ (Relative to subj.) ‘Teachers only know.’ (Abs.) ‘Teachers only know what they teach.’ (Relative to obj.) 4.62 Prepositional Phrase Prepositions are sometime used with transitive or intransitive verbs with the force of an adverb: ‘He ran in the room.’ [He ran [in] there.] ‘He ate dinner in the room.’ [He ate dinner there.] But sometimes intransitive verbs that cannot take an object from their own force can do so through a preposition: ‘He ran into the wall.’ Parts of Speech A word can be considered according to the force that it has in a particular sentence, as the part of a sentence. It can also be considered according to the force it has insofar as it is one kind of word rather than another, wherever it may appear in the sentence. In this sense we refer to a word as a part of speech. The distinct force in each part of speech is particularly clear when one compares distinct parts using the same sound. A ‘man’ clearly refers to some thing, ‘to man’ is to supply such things, as ‘manning a ship’, or to be ‘manly’, as in ‘manning it out’ or ‘manning it up’. Again, when one ‘dresses’, he puts on his ‘dress’. 14 4. Predicate In each case the verb suggests some kind of action, even when this is merely imaginary, as when ‘he just stands there’. The noun, however, suggests some ‘thing’ or ‘substance’, though this can be rather far removed from the most obvious ‘things’: ‘whiteness’, ‘justice’, ‘action’, ‘quickness’, ‘idea’, ‘emptyness’. Noun (Chapters 5–11) A (substantive) noun represents what it signifies as a thing or substance: ‘dog’, ‘triangle’, ‘substance’. But in this it agrees with the pronoun: ‘this’, ‘he’. Both differ from the verb, which represents something as an action: ‘walks’, ‘sits’. Further, the noun clearly suggests ‘substantiality’ in a way that the adjective does not, as in ‘whiteness’ compared with ‘white’. Yet, like the adjective, the noun has some character or quality. While the force of the pronoun is merely to ‘point’ to something as if a thing or substance, as in ‘he’, ‘this’, the noun adds to that force something that characterizes or determines that thing, as in ‘painter’, ‘painting’. Again, it must be kept in mind that this ‘character’ that determines the noun may not be ‘something’; it is merely represented as something: ‘He is a real nothing!’ Now a thing or substance displays various general aspects of itself as a thing through action. A thing does something or it is that to which something is done. Again, a thing, especially a person, may be given or told something or may possess something. The noun, as well as the pronoun, seems to represent what it signifies together with these various aspects. In English this is even more clear in some pronouns than in nouns: ‘he’, ‘his’, ‘him’, ‘Joseph’, ‘Joseph’s’. Yet English word order usually makes this where the ‘morphology’ or form of the word does not: ‘The dog bit the man.’ Such distinctions in nouns and pronouns (and in Latin adjectives) are called cases. Etymologically, the word ‘case’ refers to a ‘falling away’ from the form that would serve principally as subject, the nominative, which merely ‘names’ the thing. Yet the word ‘case’ was eventually extended to the nominative, even in Latin, and the notion of ‘falling away’ was introduced again, by distinguishing the nominative as the casus rectus or ‘upright case’ from the various casus obliqua, the ‘oblique’ or ‘declining’ cases. These are the cases that represent something as object to the action of a verb or as 15 I. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE A 340 H 678-9 A 339 H 677 A 281 H 473 some condition to that action or even as the object of the act of speaking: ‘I hit Jim,’ ‘I began counting with Jim,’ ‘Jim, watch out!’ Case is one of three grammatical properties found in nouns, pronouns, and Latin adjectives. The following discussion of noun syntax considers the various differences of case found in Latin nouns. The other properties of nouns are gender and number. The differences of gender are masculine, feminine, and neuter (‘neither’). Number may be singular or plural, though once distinct ‘dual’ forms were common in the language from which Latin has descended. Three noun using dual forms in a few cases survive in Latin: duo, ambo, octo; ‘two’, ‘both’, ‘eight’ (‘two fours’). 5 Vocative The vocative case is used to draw someone’s attention. Thus, Saint Thomas Aquinas says, ‘Per vocativum provocatur sive excitatur animus audientis ad attendendum.’ (‘Through the vocative the mind of the one hearing is provoked or excited to pay attention.’) 6 Nominative The nominative case represents something as able to perform an action: Canis latrat. ‘The dog is barking.’ Sometimes the predicate does not ‘demand’ so much of its nominative subject: Canis dormit. ‘The dog is sleeping.’ Canis mortuus est. ‘The dog died.’ Further, sometimes the nominative case is used to name something other than the sentences subject because of some identity with the subject of predication. Homo est animal. ‘Man is an animal.’ Homo malus non ridet. ‘The evil man does not smile.’ 6.1 As Subject The principal noun of a sentence’s subject is almost always in the nominative case: Canis in agro est. ‘The dog is in the field.’ 6.2 As Predicate Nominative Nominal sentences that identify predicate nouns with the subject put such 16 7. Accusative predicates in the same case as the subject, namely, the nominative. So in English, where the forms of words change very little, one notices this only in pronouns. While we say, ‘I hit him, because he bit me,’ we also say ‘It was he (who bit me). It was I (who hit him).’ Though one may say, ‘It was me,’ we sense that this does not sound as correct as ‘It was I.’ At the same time, we often refuse to say ‘It was I,’ precisely because it sounds pedantically correct. 7 Accusative The accusative case represents the thing signified as the term of some movement or action: Vergilius libellum scribebat. ‘Vergil was writing a little book.’ Again, Currit in aedificium. ‘He is running into the building.’ 7.1 Direct Object The accusative case regularly represents what it signifies as the object of almost any sort of action, the direct object. This is its most characteristic use. 7.11 External Object The external object is distinct from and ‘outside’ the activity, as wood is the object of cutting: ‘He cut the wood.’ Vergilius libellum scribebat. Vergil was writing a little book.’ 7.12 Internal Object/Cognate Accusative An internal object is not distinct from the activity, as a song is the object of singing: ‘He sang a song.’ Canticum cantavit. Carmen cantavit. ‘He sang a song.’ The cognate accusative is a noun in the accusative case from the same root as the verb it completes, as ‘to sing a song’, ‘to pick a peck’, and the like: ‘He sang a song.’ Canticum cantavit. But not, Carmen cantavit. Though the phrases ‘internal object’ and ‘cognate accusative’ do not always refer to the same grammatical fact, they often do. Hence, they are closely related. The phrase ‘internal object’ attends to the relation between W 1-19 A 387 H 745 W 1-2 A 390 H 758 W 1, 13-4 17 I. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE W 5-9 H 761 W 3, 10-12 the object and the action in reality, while the phrase ‘cognate accusative’ attends to the relation between the words used to signify them. 7.2 Adverbial Accusative Intransitive verbs take the accusative, usually with a preposition, in an adverbial manner. ‘He went to town.’ ‘He went home.’ Each is similar to ‘He went there.’ 7.21 Accusative of Goal The most common adverbial accusative represents what is signified by the noun as the terminus or goal of some movement. The accusative of goal is regularly the object of prepositions such as ad, in, or sub. Currit ad mare. ‘He is running to the sea.’ Currit in aedificium. ‘He is running into the building.’ Currit sub tectum. ‘He is running (to get) under the roof.’ Certain words can be used as an accusative of goal without a preposition. Generally towns and small islands (as opposed to cities) do not demand a preposition. Some words are used so regularly in this manner that they do not demand a preposition: Romam (Rome), domum (home), rus (the countryside), or supetias ire (to go to a funeral), exequias ire (to go to a funeral). Compare the English ‘to go home’. Regulus Romam missus est. ‘Regulus was sent to Rome.’ Regulus domum venit. ‘Regulus went home.’ 7.22 Accusative of Extent or Duration Without a preposition the accusative can represent some measurement, the extent or duration, of a movement or action: ‘We walked five miles.’ Ambulavimus quinque milia. ‘He lived eighty years.’ Vixit octaginta annos. Compare these with ‘We walked far,’ and ‘He lived long.’ The accusative of extent or duration is used not only with verbs but also to modify adjectives: Milites aggerem altum pedes octoginta exstruxerunt. ‘The soldiers raised a mound eighty feet high.’ 18 7. Accusative 7.23 Material Accusative The accusative sometimes designates the matter in which what is signified by the verb takes place: oculos dolui. The English translation usually does not include this usage: ‘I suffered in my eyes.’ 7.24 Double Accusative (Material and Formal) A double accusative construction completes a verb with two accusatives. One of these stands as ‘matter’ to the other, and we call this too a ‘material’ accusative. The other stands as ‘form’. So it is the ‘formal’ accusative. ‘We made him king.’ Eum regem fecimus. Distinguish this from constructions employing both direct and indirect objects: ‘I told him the story.’ ‘I gave him the gift.’ 7.25 Accusative-Infinitive Construction The double accusative becomes the accusative-infinitive construction, when the infinitive is used as the formal accusative. So in English: ‘We want him to speak,’ or ‘We made him go.’ (The second example uses an ancient form of the infinitive, before the preposition ‘to’ became inseparable from it.) E.g. volo te volare ‘I want you to fly.’ Here the accusative and the infinitive work as two accusatives sometimes work: one is ‘material’, the other is ‘formal’. So, ‘we made him king.’ 7.251 With Verbs of Making The ‘accusative-infintive construction’ can be used to complete verbs that signify making one thing another: ‘We made him king.’ Eum regem fecimus. 7.252 With Verbs of Speaking The use of the accusative-infinitive construction (often called the accusative ‘subject’ of the infinitive) is especially prominent as the object of verbs of speaking. This is called indirect discourse. Dicit te volare. ‘He says you are flying.’ H 760 A 391-6 H 746-54 W 14-16; 17 A 397e H 893-904 W 25-32 W 25 H 663-76 W 29, 33 19 I. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE W 25, 34 W 30-32 W 38-55 This prominence has led many to confuse the accusative-infinitive construction with ‘indirect discourse’. But indirect discourse is one out of many uses of the accusative-infinitive construction. 7.253 As Subject of Impersonal and other Finite Verbs As Latin developed, the accusative-infinitive construction was felt more and more to be something one. At length the construction was used even as the subject of a finite verb. This is especially, though not exclusively, found with ‘impersonal’ verbs, those verbs that do not, or do not appear to, have a distinct subject. Hence, impossibile est te volare ‘It is impossible that you fly’, and oportet te volare ‘It is necessary that you fly; You must fly.’ 7.254 Aspect (Tense) of the Infinitive The aspect or tense of the infinitive in the accusative-infinitive construction indicates the temporal relation of the ‘action’ signified by the infintive to the ‘action’ signified by the main verb. The progressive (or present) infinitive signifies action occurring at the time designated by the main verb. The perfect infinitive represents the action it signifies as complete at time designated by main verb. A future infinitive represents an action beginning after the time designated by the main verb. Note that it does not indicate whether or not the action has begun at the time the sentence is made. 8 Ablative The ‘ablative’ case is an amalgamation of three cases that were once distinct: the ablative itself (8.1), the instrumental (8.2), and the locative (8.3.) This presumably occurred because its original manner of signifying things, namely, to signify them as an origin or source, was so much like the manner which the other cases signified things that they became ‘confused’ or ‘put together’ in use. At length only the ablative form remained, or rather the various forms that remained were conceived as belonging only to one case, the ablative. 20 8. Ablative 8.1 ‘Original’ Ablative The ablative originally signified the origin or source of something. This use can therefore be called significantly the ‘original’ ablative. The prepositions used with the original ablative are ab, de, and ex. 8.11 Ablative of Source, Place from which (ab, ex, de) The ablative is sometimes used with a preposition to designate a source or place ‘from which’. Separation from the souce is not necessary and may even be impossible. Venit a monte. ‘He came from the mountain.’ Pugna veniunt ab ira. ‘Fights come from anger. The preposition is often (but not always) omitted with towns, small islands, and certain words such as domo, rure, and humo. 8.12 Ablative of Separation The ablative of source often includes a separation from the source or place from which. This leads to the use of the ablative to indicate separation even when what is represented by the ablative is not a source or place from which. Regularly the prepositions ab, ex, de are employed: Absit a me. ‘May it be far from me.’ However, the preposition is omitted with verbs or adjectives signifying separation: Egeo cibo. I need food. vacuus aere. . . empty of air . . . 8.13 Ablative of Agent (ab and Pass. Verb) A personal (or personified) agent is represented by an ablative of agent with the preposition ab as complement to a passive verb: Lesbia amatur a Catullo. ‘Lesbia is loved by Catullus.’ This is a distinct use of the ablative of source. The ablative of agent must be clearly distinguished from the ablative of cause. The ablative of cause is not represented as a person nor does it employ a preposition, as it is a development of the instrumental ablative. W 38-40 A 403 W 40, 41(1), 42 A 400-2 H 766 W 40-2 A 405 H 764 W 41(2) 21 I. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE A 403 W 41(3) W 41(6) W 41(6) A 406 H 777-80 W 41(9), 78-9 A 408 W 43 8.14 Ablative of Material (ex, de) The material of which something is made is represented in the ablative with the prepostion de: Ex amino constamus et corpore. ‘We are made from mind and body.’ (Cicero) This is a distinct use of the ablative of source. 8.15 Partitive Ablative (ex, de) The ablative of separation gives rise to the partitive ablative or ablative of the whole, which represents something as a whole compared to what is represented by the word it modifies. The prepositions ex and de are used: septem ex militibus, ‘seven of the soldiers’; homo de plebe, ‘a man of the people’. But also, nullus ex nobis, none of us; omnes ex hominibus, ‘all of the men’. 8.16 Ablative with de meaning ‘about’, ‘concering’ The partitive ablative may have given rise to a common use of the ablative with de meaning ‘about’, ‘concerning’, ‘of ’, ‘regarding’. Dixit de multis. He spoke about many things. Regulus de captivis Romam missus est. Regulus was sent to Rome regarding the prisoners. 8.17 Ablative of Comparison (No Preposition) Comparative adjectives often (and comparative adverbs sometimes) employ an ablative (of separation?) to represent the thing to which the comparison is made. Quis clarior Themistocle? Who was more famous than Themistocles? Lacrima nihil citius arescit. Nothing dries more quickly than a tear. 8.2 Instrumental Case The ‘instrumental’ ablative first signifies some instrument or means. This use of the ablative seems to have arisen from a confusion of the ancient instrumental case with the ablative, since the instrument is a principle of the 22 8. Ablative agent’s activity. Pugno arcu. ‘I am fighting with a bow.’ The prepositions used with the instrumental ablative are cum and sine. Una cum his legatis . . . venit. ‘He came together with these legates.’ 8.21 Ablative of Instrument, Means (No Prep.) The instrumental ablative is merely the use of the ablative without a preposition to signify something as means or instrument. This arose from a confusion of the ablative and the ancient instrumental case. Pugno arcu. ‘I am fighting with a bow.’ It is nowhere more clear than as the object of the verb utor : Arcu utor. ‘I am using a bow.’ 8.22 Abl. of Price (Meas. of Diff.) Since the price is the means of obtaining something, it is described with the instrumental ablative, without a preposition. This use is most distinct when it represents the worth of something without reference to purchase: tribus denariis aestimare, ‘to value at three denarii’ Magno ubique pretio virtus aestimatur. Everywhere virtue is valued at a high price. 8.23 Ablative of Accompaniment (cum; often omitted with Adjective) The ablative of accompaniment is a term used most properly when representing persons. Two developments of this usage, the ablative of attendent circumstances and the ablative absolute, are understood more clearly when seen as involving the notion of accompaniment. 8.231 By Persons or Things Personified The ablative of accompaniment signifies some person or something personified with whom or with which an action occurs. It regularly uses the preposition cum, unless an adjective is added, when it is often omitted. Hence, Una cum his legatis. . . venit. ‘He came together with these legates.’ A 409 H 765 W 43(1), 44. A 416-7 H 771, 788-9 W 43(2), 86-7 A 413 H 771-4 W 43(5), 46-47 23 I. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE W 43(5), 46 A 419-20 H 912-915 W 43(5), 49-50 Cum hostibus erat pugnandum. ‘It was necessary to fight with the enemy.’ Omnibus copiis ad Ilerdam profisciscitur. ‘He sets out for Ilerda with all his forces.’ 8.232 Ablative of Attendant Circumstances The ablative ‘of attendant circumstances’ extends the sense of accompaniment from persons to things and circumstances. The use of cum follows the rule mentioned above regarding the ablative of accompaniment: . . . ne cum periculo ex castris egredi cogatur. ‘. . . lest he be forced to go out of the camp with danger.’ Nulla est altercatio unquam habita clamoribus maioribus. ‘No dispute was ever held with greater shouts.’ But, Verborum copiam praebebat populo cum multa concursatione magnoque clamore. ‘He used to pour out an abundance of words to the people with much commotion and loud shouting.’ 8.233 Ablative Absolute (No Prep.) The ablative absolute is a very common construction formed usually from a noun in the ablative together with a participle, also in the ablative, that modifies the former noun or adjective. A substantive adjective may serve here as a noun. (Perhaps an adjective or even another noun may take the role of the participle.) The ablative absolute develops the ablative of attendant circumstances such that the construction functions almost as a subordinate clause. (In translation, a subordinate clause is often advised.) Though the absolute construction often retains a circumstantial character, it tends toward the notion of a condition, as examples will show. An ambiguous example is quoted by Woodcock: Ex urbe exibant capitibus opertis. ‘They went out of the city with covered heads.’ (Abl. of Attendant Circumstances) ‘When they had covered their heads, they went out of the city.’ (Abl. Absolute) 24 8. Ablative 8.24 Ablative of Manner (cum; often omitted with adjective) When the instrumental ablative loses the sense of accompaniment and serves more as an adverb, it is called the ablative of manner. The rules for the preposition cum are the same, namely, it is used when the noun has no adjective, but is often, though not always, omitted when there is an adjective. An example from Cicero makes the adverbial character clear: honeste, id est cum virtute, vivere. . . to live honestly, that is with virtue. . . Other examples from Cicero: Incredibili celeritate ad flumen decucurrerunt. They ran down to the river with incredible speed. admirabili cum celeritate moveri. . . to move with admirable speed. . . 8.25 Ablative of Route (No Preposition) The ‘route’ is an instrument represented without a preposition. recta via ire ‘to go by the straight way’ 8.26 Abl. of Quality/Description (with Adjective, no preposition) The ablative of attendent circumstances gives rise to the use of the ablative modifying a noun by designating its quality. Attentdent circumstance: Serpens immani corpore labitur, ‘The serpent glides along with its huge body’, Ablative of quality: serpens immani corpore. . . a serpent with a huge body. . . A 418 H 769 W 43(5), 47 W 43(4) A 415 H 762 W 43(6), 83 A 404 H 781-4 W 45 25 I. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE A 410 H 785-7 W 43(7) A 421 W 51 A 426-31 W 51-3 8.27 Ablative of Cause (No Preposition) The instrumental ablative may name something as a cause: morbo perire, to die of disease. Aeta. . . patres appellabantur. They were called ‘fathers’ because of their age. 8.28 As Complement to Deponent Verbs (No Preposition) Sometimes in Latin, deponent verbs present an ‘object’ in the accusative. But often they use instrumental ablative rather than the accusative. The instrumental ablative here significantly represents the object as the instrument by which the subject affects itself. Two important deponent verbs employ this construction: fruor, frui, fructus sum, to enjoy, and utor, uti, usus sum, to use. The following examples use these verbs with an ablative ‘object’: [Deus] non. . . fruitur nobis, sed utitur. ‘God. . . does not enjoy us but uses us. Cum. . . homine in deo frueris, deo, potius quam homine, frueris. ‘When you enjoy a man in God, your enjoy God more than the man.’ 8.3 Locative Case In the language from which Latin arose, a ‘locative’ case described a place (or time) as ‘where’ something happened and thus as a principle making the action possible. Latin has almost completely lost its ancient locative case. The ablative has assumed the senses of the locative case. 8.31 Locative Ablative (in, sub) The ‘locative’ ablative first states where something is or occurs. The prepositions used with the instrumental ablative are in, prae, pro, sub, and super : in urbe, ‘in the city’; sub mensa, ‘under the table’. This use gives rise to many metaphorical senses of these prepositions: in honore, ‘in honor’; pro peccato; ‘for sin’. 26 9. Dative Sometimes the preposition is omitted with place-names and some common words (terra marique, loco, locis, regione, parte, partibus, litore). 8.32 Ablative of Time (usually No Preposition) The ablative of time is a development of the locative ablative used to state when something occurs. The noun must signify time or some event used to refer to time, such as a war or a festival. Prepositions are very rarely used with the locative ablative. 8.4 Ablative of Respect—Instrumental/Locative (No Preposition) The ablative of respect may involve a confusion of the instrumental and locative senses of the ablative: Hoc modo erravi. I erred in this way. Cicero nomine; Cicero by name. uno oculo captus, blind in one eye. 8.5 Ablative as object of Semitic in (meaning by). Through translation of the Hebrew scriptures into Greek and Latin, the Latin preposition in (which should take a locative ablative) takes on the Semitic signification ‘by’ (which is more appropriate to the instrumental ablative). Fecit potentiam in brachio suo. He has done powerfully by his arm. (Luke 1:51) 9 Dative The dative case most generally represents something (usually a person) as that to whose advantage something is done. As a consequence, it also represents something as that to whose disadvantage something is done. A 423-4 W 54 H 770 W 54 W 56-8 27 I. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE A 366-72 H 739-41 W 59 W 59(i) W 59(ii) W 59(iii) A 368, 372 W 59(iv) A 362-5 H 736-7 W 61 9.1 With Verbs 9.11 With Intransitive Verbs 9.111 Verbs signifying conferral of advantage or benefit The dative is used to signify someone or something to whose advantage the ‘action’ signified by the verb occurs: prodesse alicui, ‘to be useful to someone’; auxiliari alicui, ‘to bring help to someone’; credere alicui, ‘to be trustful toward someone, to believe someone’; cedere alicui, ‘to yield to someone’; servire alicui, ‘to be a servant to someone, to serve someone’; nubere alicui, ‘to take the veil for someone, to marry someone’. 9.112 Verbs signifying presentation of disadvantage or hinderance The opposed notion of disadvantage involves use of the same case: obesse alicui, ‘to be prejudicial to someone, to hinder someone’; nocere alicui, ‘to be harmful to someone, to harm someone’; repugnare alicui, ‘to fight with someone’; irasci alicui, ‘to be angry with someone’. 9.113 Verbs signifying exertion or imposition of will on someone Perhaps the sense of disadvantage leads to the dative having the distinct sense of someone upon whom the will is exerted or imposed: imperare alicui, ‘to issue orders to someone’; praecipere alicui, ‘to give instructions to someone’; suadere, persuadere alicui, ‘to urge, to persuade someone’. 9.114 With certain impersonal verbs The notion of advantage and disadvantage suggest the use of the dative with some impersonal verbs: licet alicui, ‘it is allowable to someone’; libet alicui, ‘it is enjoyable to someone’; accidit alicui, ‘it happens to someone, something’; contingit alicui, ‘it falls to someone’s lot’. 9.12 With Transitive Verbs: Indirect Object The best known use of the dative, for which it is named (the root da- signifies the act of giving), is to represent someone as the person to whom something 28 9. Dative is given or the indirect object of a similar action: Dat mihi librum, ‘he gives me a book.’ Mitto tibi epistulam, ‘I am sending you a letter.’ 9.13 With Verbs using certain prepositional prefixes Some compound verbs, both intransitive and transitive, using as their prefix some preposition suggesting an indirect relation take the dative. When the motion is only figurative, the dative is more often used: Sequor te, ‘I follow you,’ but Obsequor tibi, ‘I comply with you.’ cui me studia communia coniunxerant. . . ‘to whom common pursuits had joined me. . . ’ But eam epistulam cum hac epistula coniunxi ‘I have joined that letter to his one.’ 9.14 With Certain Impersonal Passive Verbs Sometimes the impersonal verb or an impersonal use of a verb takes the passive form to signify the action itself without reference to a distinct subject. The dative is used to imply something to which such action is related: nocetur alicui, ‘harm is being done to someone’; paretur alicui, ‘obedience is being shown to someone’. Mihi nunquam persuaderi potuit animos emori. ‘That our souls die could never be made persuasive to me. 9.2 With Nouns: Possessive Dative The dative can be used to signify possession insofar as something exists to the advantage of someone or something. This may be in the predicate, as predicative dative or, more rarely, as modifying a noun: Est mihi magna domus, ‘I have a big house;’ Philocomasio custos, ‘the guardian to Philocomasius, Philocomasius’s guardian’; Caesari ad pedes, ‘at the feet to Caesar, at Caesar’s feet’. H 738 744 W 62 W 60 A 373 H 725 W 63 A 383-5 H 742-3 W 58 29 I. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE A 374 H 732 W 202 W 64 A 376-81 H 726-8 W 65 A 380 H 727 W 66 9.3 With Certain Adjectives Some adjectives indicate some relation, perhaps originating in advantage: homo amicus mihi, ‘a man friendly to me’; aequale alicui, ‘equal to something’; simile alicui, ‘similar to something’. 9.4 With Passive Periphrastic (Dative of Agent) With the passive periphrastic the agent of what must be done is sometimes indicated by the dative. This use is called the ‘dative of agent’. Perhaps this involves some sense of advantage or disadvantage. Thus Saint Gregory states: Hoc. . . nobis intuendum est.‘This ought to be considered by us.’ 9.5 General Use: Dative of Advantage (and Disadvantage) The dative can signify something or someone to whom there is advantage or disadvantage with any verb. Almost all other general senses of the dative have something remaining from this sense: Praedia aliis coluit, non sibi. ‘He cultivated the estate for others, not for himself.’ Note that the dative finally comes to signify someone or something merely as the object of some relation, without a distinct sense of advantage or interest. This is more clear in the dative with adjectives: aequale alicui, ‘equal to something’. 9.51 Dative of Reference (Person Judging) The interest involved in advantage leads the dative to signify someone ‘in whose eyes or judgment the statement is true’: Vir bonus mihi videtur, ‘He seems to me a good man;’ An ille mihi liber cui mulier imperat? ‘Can a man whom a woman rules be free in my eyes?’ 9.52 Ethical Dative The person to whom the action is of interest, without a sense of judgment, is signified by the dative. This does not imply a judgment as does the Dative of Reference: Quid mihi Celsus agit? ‘How fares Celsus? Tell me.’ 30 10. Genitive At tibi repente venit ad me Caninius mane. ‘But, look you, Caninius suddenly came to me in the morning.’ 9.53 Dative of Purpose or Result (Predicative Dative) The dative can be used to express to the purpose or result of an action. Here it does not express what is affected but what is effected: aliquid dono dare, ‘to give something for [as] a gift’; alimento serere, ‘to sow for food’; auxilio mittere, ‘to send for [as] relief’. This dative can also be used as a predicative dative: esse argumento. ‘to be [for] a proof’; esse dono, ‘to be [for] a gift’. 9.54 Dative of Direction/Relation In the poets the usage of the dative, perhaps from a tendency toward personification, overlaps somewhat with the accusative of goal. Hence, the dative can signify direction in which something is going: It clamor caelo, ‘The shout goes to heaven.’ 10 Genitive The genitive signifies something as an origin or principle, not however of an activity but of some substance or thing. The genitive is therefore most often used with the force of an adjective, modifying another noun. Sometimes, however, the notion represented by the genitive leads to adverbial uses. 10.1 Adjectival Uses 10.11 Possessive Genitive The first sense of the genitive case is merely the ‘genitor’ or perhaps the ‘owner’ or ‘possessor’, called the possessive genitive. The ‘pure’ sense of the genitor is most clear in the patronymic, the use of the genitive with the force, ‘son of so-and-so’. This is the origin of many Spanish and Portuguese surnames: Martinez and Martins, pronounced roughly the same, with the force, ‘son of Martin’. This, the true patronymic, is distinct from names that actually mean or meant ‘son of so-and-so’, such as ‘Johnson’, ‘Davidson’, Petrovitch. A 382 H 729-30 W 67 A 428h W 62 W 69-72 H 680-99 W 72 A 343 H 680 W 72(1) 31 I. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE A 344 H 683-94 W 72(2), 74 A 347-8 H 684 W 72(3), 74-5 A noun in any case, even the genitive, can be modified by the genitive. 10.111 Pure Possession The purest form of possessive genitive involves some sort of property: domus hominis ‘the man’s house’. This is extended by the imagination: mater pueri, ‘the boy’s mother’; pueri manus, ‘the boy’s hand’. 10.112 Indicating the Subject of a Property This sense of possession is easily extended to something’s properties: corporis superficies ‘the body’s surface’, color muri, ‘the wall’s color’. When used as a predicate genitive, this sense must usually be translated by the English ‘belongs to’. Sapientis est ordinare. ‘To order is of the wise man.’ → ‘To order belongs to the wise man.’ 10.113 Genitive of Respect (Sphere, Reference) The notion of belonging can also be extended to a ‘sphere’ of reference: verba amoris, ‘words of love’; belli pericula ‘dangers of war’. This may also be a development of the partitive genitive (genitive of the whole). 10.114 Genitor’s Genitive The genitive is named from its use to name someone’s genitor or father: Hasdrubal Gisgonis, ‘Hasdrubal [son] of Gisgo’; Ioannes Pauli, John [son] of Paul’; Curtii, ‘Curt’s [son]’. This is the origin of some ‘patronymics’. 10.12 Subjective Genitive It is not difficult to see that a man’s actions are first described as something he possesses, as we speak of ‘my playing (of the piano)’ or ‘his running’. But this use leads to a sense in which the genitive distinctly names the subject of the action: ‘Bach’s playing’, ‘Michelangelo’s sculpting’, or ‘Frank’s fear’. This is the subjective genitive: timor Pauli, ‘Paul’s fear’; clamor eius, ‘his shout’. 32 10. Genitive 10.13 Objective Genitive Again, one’s punishment is described as something possessed: ‘his beheading’, ‘my whipping’. This leads to a sense in which the genitive distinctly names the object of an action, whether or not it is a punishment: ‘the beheading of Anne Boleyn’, ‘the playing of the organ’, ‘the sculpting of the statue’, or ‘fear of frogs’. This use is called the objective genitive: hominis supplicium, punishment inflicted on the man’; poena malorum, ‘the punishments of evil men’; timor inimicorum, ‘fear of the enemy’. 10.14 Partitive Genitive (Gen. of Whole) Since the part is thought to belong to the whole, the whole is often presented in the genitive as possessing its part: ‘Michelangelo’s hand’. This leads to the genitive as describing a whole in which some part is distinguished in some way: ‘five of us’, ‘half of the wine’. Note however that sometimes all the parts are named by the word modified by the genitive, insofar as they are parts of the whole named by the genitive: ‘each of them’, ‘both of them’, ‘all of us’, ‘all twelve of us’. This is called the partitive genitive or the genitive of the whole: pars Galliae, ‘part of Gaul’, multi militum, ‘many of the soldiers’; multum aestatis, much of the summer’. 10.15 Genitive of Matter The partitive genitive seems to lead to the first use of the genitive that does not immediately arise from the possessive, namely the genitive of matter or the material genitive. One may speak first of a cask of wine, as if the cask were part of all the wine in the cellar. Then one conceives the ‘cask of wine’ as the cask containing wine as if the wine were its matter: cadus vini, ‘a cask of wine’. Then, straightforwardly, talentum auri, a talent of gold; flumina lactis, rivers of milk. 10.16 Genitive of Definition The partitive genitive may also lead to what is called the genitive of definition. Here the noun modified by the genitive present ‘part’ of the definition or ratio of what is in the genitive: ‘the virtue of justice’, ‘the city of London’, ‘the crime of embezzlement’. The genitive of definition can often be distinguished from others by the recognition that both words describe the A 346 H 686-94 W 72(4), 77 A 344 W 72(4) H 681-2 W 72(5) 33 I. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE A 345 H 965-6 W 72(6), 84-5 H 700-24 W 73 A 350-1 H 706-8 W 73(1) A 356 H 720-22 W 73(3) same thing: the virtue that is justice, the city that is London, the crime that is embezzlement. Latin examples: praemium laudis, ‘the reward of praise’; nomen amicitiae, ‘the noun friendship’. Note, however, that although Latin speakers used the genitive of definition, they never described cities this way: urbs Roma not urbs Romae. 10.17 Genitive of Description or Quality (with Adj.) It is more difficult to find the origin of the genitive of description. The first forms of this genitive present some measure in the genitive: ‘a farm of ten acres’, ‘a man of one hundred fifty pounds’. Perhaps this is close to the genitive of definition. This is extended to qualities: ‘a man of great courage’, ‘a book of serious worth’. Most often one can convert the genitive into an adjective and adverb: ‘a very courageous man’, ‘a seriously worthy book’. Latin examples: res decem talentum, ‘an estate of ten talents’ res eius modi, ‘a thing of that size’ vir summi ingenii, ‘ a man of the highest talent’. 10.2 Adverbial Uses 10.21 With verbs of remembering A partitive genitive is used to represent the object of verbs of remembering: Huius diei semper meminerit ‘He will always remember this day.’ Vivorum memini, nec tamen Epicuri licet oblivisci I remember the living, nor yet may I forget Epicurus.’ Venit mihi Platonis in mentem ‘The thought of Plato came to [my] mind.’ 34 11. Pronoun 10.22 With verbs of filling and related adjectives The partitive genitive, as a genitive signifying the matter, also completes verbs and adjectives that signify filling or abundance and their opposites: Convivium vicinorum cotidie compleo, ‘I fill my banquet with neighbors daily.’ Domum scelerum omnium adfluentem, ‘a house overflowing with every crime’. Omnia plena consiliorum, inania verborum videmus, ‘We see all full of plans, but empty of words.’ 10.23 With verbs of emotion The matter with regard to which emotion is felt is signified by the genitive: Miserere mei, ‘Feel mercy toward me.’ Taedet me vitae, ‘Wearyness affects me regarding life,’ → ‘I am weary of life.’ Piget me laboris, ‘Reluctance affects me with regard to work.’ 10.24 With verbs denoting juridical procedure The genitive of matter is used with verbs denoting juridical procedure: Miltiades proditionis accusatus est, ‘Miltiades was accused of treachery.’ 11 Pronoun All pronouns share in the nature of the noun. This is clear from the fact that they possess (even in English) the properties associated with nouns: gender, number, case. Thus they can play any rˆole in a sentence that a noun can play. Nonetheless, the pronoun does not have ‘all’ the force found in the noun. The pronoun does not represent what is signified as possessing a determinate nature or quality. Rather, it represents something as a ‘thing’ or a ‘substance’ without attending to such determination. A 354-5 H 714-6 W 73(4) A 352-3 H 717-8 W 73(5) 35 I. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE H 479 Of the most fundamental pronouns, some merely ‘instantiate’ the differences in gender (he, she, it), others identify ‘person’ in relation to the act of speaking (I, you), and yet others add various notions to their signification: position in place (this, that) which therefore adds determination, vagueness (someone, anyone, something, etc.), interrogation (who?, which?), and so on. The most commonly used pronouns are not derived from other pronouns. But Latin has formed a great number of compound pronouns from the simple ones. The meaning of each such pronoun must be learned separately. Often their meanings overlap. 11.05 Antecedent Since pronouns do not signify ‘what’ or ‘who’ the signified is, they always demand some ‘prior’ knowledge of the thing or person signified. This may occur through sensation, as when introducing one person to another: ‘This is Socrates, the well-known Athenian philosopher.’ In written language the signified is more often made known by a noun stated earlier: ‘Socrates did take hemlock. But he didn’t commit suicide.’ Such a noun is called the antecedent. The pronoun must agree with the antecedent in gender and number. Its case however is generally taken from its rˆole in its own sentence. Note that the antecedent may be a fact signified by an entire clause. Further, the ‘antecedent’ may come after the pronoun. Here is an example of both: ‘The problem is this: He still hasn’t come.’ 11.051 Explicit More often the antecendent is present explicitly, as a distinct word or clause in the sentence. 11.052 Implicit In Latin as well as English, it is not unusual for the antecedent to be felt implicitly in the pronoun. For example: ‘to whom it may concern’ for ‘to him whom it may concern’. 36 11. Pronoun 11.1 Personal Pronoun (ego, nos, tu, vos) Some pronouns determine the antecedent by its relation to the act of speaking (I, we; thou, you). These ‘personal’ pronouns most properly signify ‘first’ and ‘second’ person. 11.2 Reflexive Pronoun (—, sui ) The reflexive pronoun determines the antecedent as the subject of the sentence. It may occur in any case but the nominative. Though it takes only singular endings and therefore always has the appearance of a singular, it can refer to a plural subject as well as to a singular subject. 11.21 Direct Reflexive Used directly the reflexive pronoun merely indicates the subject of the relevant finite verb as its antecedent : Brutus se suo pugione interfecit. ‘Brutus killed himself with his own dagger.’ 11.22 Indirect Reflexive in Indirect Discourse In indirect discourse the reflexive pronoun refers to the subject of the verb that governs the discourse. E.g. Caesar dixit Gallos a se victos esse. ‘Caesar said that the Gauls had been defeated by him(self).’ 11.23 Referring to Subject of Discussion In later Latin the reflexive pronoun often refers not to the subject of the finite verb but to the principal subject of discussion as antecedent: Modus autem significandi est forma partis orationis quia dat sibi esse. ‘Now the mode of signifying is the form of the part of speech because it (the mode) gives existence to it (the part of speech).’ 11.3 Definite Pronoun The definite pronoun designates some person(s) or thing(s) clearly distinguished from others: ‘He stole it.’ A 142-3 H 173-4 A 144 H 127, 801-7 W 36 37 I. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE A 146 H 128 A 146 H 137, 813-4 A 149 H 841 A 146, 296-7a H 133, 791-5 11.31 Simply (is, ea, id) The Latin definite pronoun is, ea, id. 11.32 Emphasizing identity (idem, eadem, idem) The enclitic particle -dem (not -dam) added to the definite pronoun emphasizes identity: is-dem → idem (‘the same man, the very man’), eadem (‘the same woman, the very woman’), id-dem → idem (‘the same thing, the very thing’). 11.4 Indefinite The indefinite pronoun designates a person(s) or thing(s) without clear distinction from others: ‘Someone stole something.’ 11.41 Simply (quis, quid) The pure Latin indefinite pronoun is quis (m./f.), quid (n.). Omnia egent deo, sed alio modo dicitur quis egere illo quod nondum habet. All things need God, but in another way someone is said to need that which they do not yet have. 11.42 Of two (uter, utra, utrum) The indefinite pronoun uter, utra, utrum (‘some one of two → either’) adds the notion ‘of two’. 11.5 Demonstrative The demonstrative pronouns first signify something with some spatial reference: ‘this’ (near me), ‘that’ (near you). With use, the spatial reference becomes weaker. Eventually, the pronouns are sometimes used with the same force that the definite pronoun has. Likewise they are sometimes used without opposition to refer to the same thing. 11.51 Nearer (hic, haec, hoc) In Latin hic, haec, hoc originally indicates the nearer of two things. 38 11. Pronoun 11.52 Simply Farther (ille, illa, illud) ille, illa, illud originally indicates something as farther than something else. 11.53 Farther as Nearer to Another (iste, ista, istud) The Latin iste, ista, istud originally indicates something as far insofar as it is nearer to another: iste filius . . . , this son of yours . . . 11.6 Intensive (ipse, ipsa, ipsum) The Latin ipse, ipsa, ipsum signifies an antecedent with the notion of intensity : Consul ipse hoc fecit, ‘The consul himself did this,’ ipse hoc feci, ‘I did this myself’. The intensive force of this pronoun becomes very weak in medieval Latin. 11.7 Interrogative (quis, quid) The interrogative pronoun indicates which element of the sentence is the object of interrogation: Quis erat rex ? ‘Who was king?’ Quid fecit? ‘What did he do?’ Quis quid fecit? ‘Who did what?’ 11.8 Relative (qui, quae, quod) Sometimes the pronoun signifies its relation to an antecedent so distinctly that it subordinates its own clause or sentence to the clause in which the antecedent is found: ‘Socrates is the man who philosophizes in Athens. He is the man to whom I introduced you.’ Note that in the second example the preposition ‘to’ belongs to the ‘relative clause’ (which may also be called the ‘relative sentence’). 11.9 Derived Pronouns From quis or qui: aliquis, quicumque, quidam, quilibet, quisnam, quisquam, quisque, quisquis, quivis. From uter : neuter, utercumque, uterlibet, uterque, utervis, alteruter. A 136 H 134, 791-5; 798 A 146 H 136, 791-5, 799 A 146 298c-f H 138 808-12 A 148 H 140 A 147 H 139 A 151 H 815-21, 831-6; 842-4 39 I. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE H 477-8 A 288-289 H 845-848 A 124-8, 291-2 H 89-100, 853-5 12 Adjective An adjective is another part of speech that shares in the force of the noun. Like the noun, the adjective represents what it signifies as possessed of a determinate nature or quality: ‘white’, ‘hot’, ‘triangular’, ‘human’, ‘wooden’. But the adjective falls short of the noun’s force insofar as the noun represents what it signifies as a thing or substance standing by itself, while the adjective represents what it signifies as inhering in or ‘thrown against’ (jactum ad) another. Often this merely ‘replicates’ the order in things, ‘a white house’. Sometimes, however, the very same nature can be represented in both ways, ‘a manly man’. Since the adjective represents what it signifies as inhering in another, it must always ‘modify’ some noun. Sometimes such modification is only implicit, ‘The poor will always be with you.’ 12.1 Agreement of Adjective with Noun Latin adjectives must agree with nouns they modify in gender, number, and case. 12.2 Substantive Use of Adjectives An adjective is used substantively, that is, as a substantive (what we now mean in English by ‘noun’), when it bears the force of a noun that it implicitly modifies. In such use, the masculine implies ‘men’, the feminine implies ‘women’, and the neuter implies ‘things’. Hence, Boni venient means ‘The good (men) will come,’ while Bona malumus means ‘We prefer good things.’ In Latin, the adjective is regularly used substantively in the singular as well as the plural. In English, the substantive is only common in the plural, ‘The poor will always be with you.’ 12.3 Adjectives Signifying Degree 12.31 Comparatives The comparative adjective represents someone or something as more so: altius, ‘taller’; melior, ‘better’. In Latin the comparative can be used alone 40 12. Adjective to state that something is rather so. Altius est. ‘He is taller.’ → ‘He is rather tall.’ 12.311 Completed by Ablative In Latin comparative adjectives are often completed by the ablative case: altius homine, ‘taller than a man’. 12.312 Completed by quam and case agreement of things compared Comparative adjectives can be completed by the conjunction quam and a sentence (explicit or implicit) with the thing to which something is compared in the same case that the thing compared has in the independent sentence: Est altior quam Socrates, ‘He is taller (more tall) than Socrates (is).’ 12.32 Superlatives The superlative adjective represents something as the most such and is completed by a genitive construction: horum omnium fortissimi, ‘the very bravest of all these’. But used alone, the superlative may suggest only eminence: fortissimi, ‘most brave, very brave’. 12.4 Pronominal Adjectives Some adjectives are derived from pronouns. Further, many pronouns can be used adjectivally. (In the Latin division of the parts of speech, the pronomen is divided into the substantive and the adjective.) 12.41 Possessive: meus, noster; tuus, vester; suus Some possessive adjectives are derived from the personal pronouns, as in the English ‘my’ from ‘me’ and ‘your’ from ‘you’, etc. 12.42 Interrogative: qui, quae, quod The interrogative adjective modifies the noun which the question seeks to determine: Quem librum scripsit? ‘Which book did he write?’ A 291-293 H 856-59 A 145 H 125-6 A 148 H 141 41 I. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE A 220 H 925-1004 12.43 Pronouns used Adjectivally Definite: is, ea, id; idem, eadem, idem. Demonstrative: hic, haec, hoc; ille, illa, illud; iste, ista, istud. Intensive: ipse, ipsa, ipsum. Relative: qui, quae, quod. 13 Preposition The preposition is not one of the two principal parts of speech, that is, the noun or the verb, nor is it even one of the secondary parts. This is to say it is not a part of speech properly speaking, but an ancillary part of speech. This means that it exists precisely to support another word. Thus the preposition seems to affect the manner in which another word, its object, is represented (rather than representing something itself). The preposition and its object, including any adjectives, are called a prepositional phrase. In its first uses, the preposition seems to ‘complete’ a verb so that it has enough transitive force to ‘affect’ an object. ‘I am going,’ but ‘I am going to the market.’ Later, the preposition develops sufficient breadth in its usage such that it merely indicates some relation of something (immediately or through an action signified by the verb) to something else: ‘I am walking in the street.’ ‘I am crowned with laurel.’ In Latin, prepositions can take or ‘govern’ only two cases, the accusative or the ablative. Prepositional phrases using the accusative represent the object of the preposition as the term of a movement or action, or merely the term of a relation. Prepositional phrases using the ablative represent the object of the preposition as related to an action or to a thing as some sort of principle. There are three prepositions that can take either case, albeit with a different force. Many prepositions take either the one case or the other. All prepositions that take the ablative do so according to only one sense of the ablative: original, instrumental, or locative. [An exception in Christian Latin is the use of in with Semetic force. Cf. 8.5.] 42 13. Preposition 13.1 Taking accusative or ablative: in, sub, super 13.2 Taking accusative only ante, apud, ad, adversum, circum, cis (citra), ob, trans, secundum, penes, prope, per, post, and all in -¯a and -ter. 13.3 Taking ablative 13.31 Original: abs (ab, a), de, ex (e) 13.32 Instrumental:cum, sine 13.33 Locative: coram, [in],prae, pro, [sub], [super] 13.4 Uses of prepositional phrases 13.41 Adverbial A prepositional phrase is used adverbially when it functions as an adverb would. Avis volat in caelo. ‘The bird is flying in the sky.’ 13.42 Adjectival A prepositional phrase is used adjectivally when it functions as an adjective would: Avis in caelo volat. ‘The bird in the sky is flying.’ Verb (Chapters 14–16) The verb represents what it signifies as an action. This is most clear in the finite verb (14) which generally represents the signified as ‘done’ by a distinct agent: ‘He bites.’ But also: ‘He sits.’ ‘He exists.’ And even: ‘It rains.’ Because it signifies something as an action, the verb represents some ‘movement’ or ‘flow’. This implies that it arises from some principle or ‘subject’ and occurs in time. The most obvious properties of the verb follow from these aspects of its signification. This also explains the verbs particular power to signify the predication of something distinct from, yet somehow identified with, another. 43 I. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE The verb also contains several verbal ‘nouns’ (15): the infinitive, the gerund, and, in Latin, the ‘supine’. Though nouns, these clearly represent what is signified as an action. This is most clear when they take objects: ‘To fish trout is my favorite pastime.’ ‘Fishing trout is best.’ ‘He enjoys trouting, so to speak.’ Further there are verbal adjectives (16), participles, which also retain the character of action. Again, this is most clear when they take objects: ‘The man fishing trout is the murderer.’ 14 Finite Verb: Person, Number, Tense, Aspect, Voice, Mood Finite verbs have six properties in Latin: person and number (which refer to the subject), tense and aspect (which pertain to what is signified by the verb itself), voice and mood. Verbs are finite precisely because they can be determined to a subject by the property of person. 14.1 Agreement of Person and Number with Subject Person in the verb refers to the relation of the subject to the act of speaking. This is called first, second, or third. The first person refers to the subject as the speaker. The second refers to the subject as the person spoken to. The third person refers to the subject without relation to the act of speaking. Since the verb refers to the subject through its person, it must agree with the person indicated by any pronoun or noun serving explicitly as subject. By number the verb indicates the number found in its subject. In Latin, number is either singular or plural. Since the verb refers to the subject through its person, it must agree with the person indicated by any noun or pronoun serving explicitly as subject. 14.2 Tense: Present, Past, and Future Tense or time is past, present, or future. Tense must be carefully distinguished from aspect. In the indicative mood, all three tenses are found. In the subjunctive mood, two ‘tenses’ are found, past and present, but this 44 14. Finite Verb distinction usually refers to more or less remoteness in actuality rather than in time. 14.3 Aspect Aspect is, generally speaking, the manner of representing an action over time. Thus, aspect includes three general possibilitles: the simple (also called aorist), the progressive (on-going or imperfect), and the perfect (complete). In Latin the simple (or ‘aorist’ from the Greek, meaning ‘indefinite’) and the perfect have become wholly confused in form. The distinct sense of the simple is often implicit in the use of certain tense-aspect combinations (14.33). In judging a verb, one must first consider its form. In Latin the fundamental distinction in form is that between the progressive and the perfect. (The aorist form is no longer distinct from the perfect.) Each of these systems is further divided into past, present, and future. 14.31 Progressive The progressive aspect represents what is signified by the verb as ongoing. Thus in English: ‘I am walking,’ or ‘I was walking.’ 14.311 Present Progressive (Present) In its most fundamental use, the present progressive represents an action as ongoing at the time of speaking: ambulat, ‘he is walking.’ But cf. 14.331. 14.312 Past Progressive (Imperfect) In its most fundamental use, the past progressive represents an action as ongoing prior to the time of speaking: ambulabat, ‘he was walking.’ 14.313 Future Progressive (Future) In its most fundamental use, the future progressive represents an action as ongoing at some time after the time of speaking: ambulabit, ‘he will be walking.’ But cf. 14.332. 45 I. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE 14.32 Perfect In its most fundamental use, the perfect aspect represents the completion of what is signified by the verb. Thus in English: ‘I have walked,’ or ‘I had walked.’ 14.321 Present Perfect (Perfect) The name and the force of the present perfect is often misunderstood. It distinctly expresses action as complete in the present: ambulavit, ‘he has walked.’ (Since the present perfect is often used with the force of a simple past [14.333], the name ‘perfect’ is often thought—mistakenly—to signify ‘past’.) 14.322 Past Perfect (Pluperfect) In its most fundamental use, the past perfect represents action as completed in the past: ambulaverat, ‘he had walked.’ The name ‘pluperfect’ suggests the relation of the past perfect to the (present) perfect used with the force of a simple past. Such a ‘perfect’ signifies the past, which the ‘pluperfect’ (plus quam perfectum or ‘more than perfect’) signifies something ‘more (than) past’. 14.323 Future Perfect In its most fundamental use, the future perfect represents action as to be completed in the future: ambulaverit, ‘he will have walked.’ Note that it does not express whether the action has yet begun. This may or may not be clear from context. But cf. 14.332. 14.33 Defunct Aorist or Simple Aspect The aorist or simple aspect represents what is signified by the verb without distinguishing it as ongoing or completed. Thus in English, the stage directions: ‘He enters,’ ‘All exit.’ In Latin the ancient aorist forms have become confused with the perfect aspect. Note, however, that the simple aspect is sometimes signified by other tense-aspect combinations. 46 14. Finite Verb 14.331 Present Progressive for defunct Present Aorist (Simple) The present progressive is often used to signify the simple present: ambulat, ‘he walks.’ 14.332 Future Progressive or Future Perfect for defunct Future Aorist Either future, the progressive or the perfect, may be used to represent the simple future: ambulabit or ambulaverit, ‘he will walk.’ 14.333 Present Perfect for defunct Past Aorist The present perfect is often used to represent the simple past: ambulavit, ‘he walked.’ This is of particular importance in understanding the sequence of tenses (27). 14.4 Voice Voice (usually called genus in Latin) represents the manner in which what is signified by the verb relates to the verb’s subject. Voice is active or passive or ‘middle’. The ‘deponent’ seems to result from a confusion (or ‘putting together’) of the middle and the passive. The active voice seems to be ‘voice’ in the fullest sense, while the other voices seem to share in its power or force, while falling away from it, as adjectives and pronouns share in the force of the noun. 14.41 Active The first voice found in verbs is the active. With this voice the verb represents the subject as acting on something. The action is represented as coming forth from the subject and terminating in another. In Sanskrit grammar, such a verb is called a ‘word for another’. Thus, in English, ‘The man walks the dog.’ Again, ‘The boy breaks the window.’ This voice can also represent the subject as ‘in the state of existence denoted by the verb.’ (Kent 371.1) ‘The man was in the room. He sat on the chair.’ 47 I. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE 14.42 Passive A passive voice was in fact the last to develop. This voice represents what is signified by the verb, breaking or walking, as coming forth within the subject and from another. So, ‘The window was broken by the boy,’ and ‘The dog will be walked daily by our neighbor.’ 14.421 Impersonal Passives Sometimes the impersonal verb or an impersonal use of a verb takes the passive form to signify the action itself without reference to a distinct subject: curritur, ‘running is taking place’; proceditur, ‘a procession occurs, it is time to proceed’. 14.43 Middle Well before the passive was formed in the parent family of Latin and English, another voice was established. Here the verb represents some action as coming forth from the subject so that the subject itself is in some way involved beyond performing the act: ‘the subject acts on itself or on something belonging to itself or for its own benefit.’ (Kent 371.2) This middle voice is described by the Sanskrit grammarians by the expressive phrase ‘word for self’. This distinguishes it, from the active, the ‘word for another’. But in English this new ‘voice’, called the middle, does not demand a new form of the verb. It uses the same form as the active. (This may also suggest an ancient origin in English.) Thus, we say, ‘The man walks,’ or ‘The window breaks’. In Latin, the middle voice uses the same form as the passive. 14.44 Deponent The Latin grammarians described certain verbs as ‘setting aside’, deponentes, their active forms. Such verbs used only passive forms (hence their dictionary entries are distinctly passive), yet they described actions. In fact, these verbs describe ‘actions’ that in some way affect the subject of such actions. The ‘action’ is not represented as distinctly passive, for these verbs sometimes take accusative direct objects. But neither is it represented as distinctly active, since the active voice is not used. Most 48 14. Finite Verb deponent verbs are examples of the ‘middle’ voice. Sequor hominem istum. ‘I am following that man.’ 14.5 Mood: Indicative, Subjunctive, or Imperative Mood is described by the ancient grammarians as representing the affectus animi, ‘the affection of the mind’. This is the ‘attitude’ of the speaker toward what he speaks about. Mood in Latin is indicative, subjunctive, or imperative. Yet another mood once existed in Latin, the optative, which has become wholly confused with the subjunctive. Hence one use of the Latin subjunctive is the ‘optative subjunctive’. The optative and imperative moods seem to fulfill the ancient account most perfectly. They represent something together with the speaker’s ‘attitude’ toward it. The indicative and more general uses of the subjunctive seem to represent something merely as actual or as potential. The name ‘subjunctive’ is an alternative to the more common Latin coniunctivum. This name was given to verbs in the subjunctive because they were associated with subordinated or ‘conjoined’ clauses. Though the infinitive is sometimes called a mood, it is in fact a verbal noun, a non-finite part of the verbal system. 14.6 Indicative A Latin finite verb in the indicative mood, when used independently, states or declares something to be true, whether particular or universal. Questions stated directly in the indicative mood likewise ask simply whether something is true or is not true. The Latin indicative uses all three tenses in both aspects. These refer, in their most fundamental use, to the three parts of time, according as the action is then completed or still incomplete. 14.7 Subjunctive: Independent Uses The Latin subjunctive is also used in independent sentences. Three uses can be distinguished: the potential subjunctive, the optative subjunctive, and the jussive subjunctive. W105 A 157a, 437 H 498 W 106-7 49 I. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE A 445-7 H 500-1 W 118-21 The Latin subjunctive uses only the present and past tenses. In the most primitive use, these refer to temporal possibilities or desires. Soon, however, this distinction serves to represent things as more removed (past subjunctive) and less removed (present subjunctive) from reality and actuality, through a kind of analogy with time. Even English includes this distinction. Observe the difference between the use of past and present subjunctives in the following sentences: ‘If he were the murderer, he would have used an axe.’ ‘If he be the murderer, he used an axe.’ N.B. Often in English we use ‘modal subjunctives’ with ‘would’, ‘should’, ‘may’, and so on, to clarify the sense of the subjunctive. 14.71 Potential Subj.: Conceivable Action (non) The first independent us of the subjunctive and its most fundamental use arises from its very nature. This use is called the potential subjunctive: something is described as possible or conceivable. Here the negative is non. 14.711 Present Progressive or Present Perfect A statement using the potential subjunctive in the present progressive or present perfect signifies action in the indefinite future or something possible though not actual in the present. Utilis eius opera sit. His service may be useful. His service could be useful. Utilis eius opera non sit. His service may not be useful. Ego ipse cum Platone non invitus erraverim. ‘Not unwillingly would I go wrong with Plato.’ Occasionally, however, the present perfect, was used to express a possibility in the past: Cum tribunus essem, fortasse erraverim. When I was consul, I may perhaps have been wrong. 50 14. Finite Verb 14.712 Past Progressive (rarely Past Perfect) The potential subjunctive in the past progressive (rarely past perfect) signifies an action which might have taken place in the past or an action not taking place in the present: In hac fortuna utilis eius opera esset. In this misfortune, his services would be useful. In hac fortuna utilis eius opera non esset. In this misfortune, his services would not be useful. Tunc ambulare didiceram. Then I would have learned to walk. 14.72 Optative Subjunctive: Wishes (usually ne) A second independent use of the subjunctive arises from the confusion of the ancient ‘optative’ mood and the subjunctive. (This confusion has given rise to the subjunctives formed with -i-, used to form the optative in Latin’s parent language.) The optative mood is used to express wish, as in English we say, or used to say, ‘That it would rain!’ or ‘Would that it would rain!’ This must be distinguished carefully from an explicit description of the act of wishing: ‘I wish it would rain.’ The latter is an indicative sentence in which the desire is explicitly signified. The previous sentences signify rain in the ‘manner’ or ‘mode’ of something desired. Thus the Latin subjunctive in its independent use sometimes signifies something as desired or wished for. This is called the optative subjunctive. Often some adverb is added: utinam, uti, ut—how; modo—only. The negative is ne rather than non. 14.721 Present Progressive: usually wish for future In the present progressive a wish is represented as still possible—the very reference to possibility suggests its connection with the subjunctive. Sis Iesu nostrum gaudium. Jesus, may you be our joy. Sit nostra gloria in te. May our glory be in you. Utinam nunc stimulus in manu mihi sit! O that the goad (stimulus) were now in my hand! A 441-2 H 511-3 W 113-7 51 I. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE A 439-40; 450 H 514, 516-7 W 109-12 Ne hoc sit! May this not be. 14.722 Present Perfect: Wish that something prove already true Utinam vere auguraverim, ‘May I have augered truly.’ Utinam dies iam venerit, ‘I hope the day has already come.’ 14.723 Past Progressive: Impossible Wish for Present/Wish about Past In the past progressive the optative subjunctive represents things wished for as unable to be fulfilled in the present or the immediate future: Tecum ludere sicut ipsa possem. Could I play with you as she does. [But I cannot.] (Catullus) ‘Homo hic ebrius est, ut opinor’ ‘Utinam ita essem!’ This man is drunk, I think. I wish I were!’ (Plaut.) In older Latin especially, the past progressive described wishes about the past: Utinam te di perderent. ‘Would that the gods had made away with you.’ Di facerent sine patre forem. ‘Would that the gods had made me to have been without a father.’ Utianm ego tertius vobis amicus adscriberer. ‘Would that I had been conscripted as your third friend.’ 14.724 Past Perfect: Regret that something did or did not happen Utinam res publica stetisset nec in homines cupidos incidisset. ‘Would that the republic had stood and had not fallen to greedy men.’ 52 14. Finite Verb 14.73 Jussive Subj. (ne, rarely non) The third use of the Latin subjunctive in independent sentences is to command or exhort, called the jussive subjunctive. Here again the negative is ne. Note that this use is close to the imperative mood. But the pure jussive subjunctive is generally used for distinct kinds of command. Though Latin possesses a 3rd person imperative, the jussive subjunctive is usually used for 3rd person commands. 2nd person commands of a general nature use the jussive subjunctive, while one would command a particular action in the 2nd person with the imperative. In Latin, direct orders to do something are thus given universally in the 3rd person by means of the jussive subjunctive. In the 2nd person, they are given by means of the jussive subjunctive, when they are of a general nature, and in the imperative mood, when they refer to a particular action. 14.731 Present Progressive In the present progressive, the jussive subjunctive signifies what is to be done or not done in the future. Sit semicirculus GD. Let there be the semicircle GD. Cautus sis, mi Tyro. You must be cautious, Tiro. [Rather than Esto cautus!] Ne solliciti sitis. Be ye not sollicitious. 14.732 Past Progressive In the past progressive, the jussive subjunctive is sometimes used to express a past obligation or necessity, though this is usually expressed in Latin by another construction. Poenas penderes. You had to pay the penalty. 14.733 Present Perfect The present perfect is used for prohibitions in the second person and in all persons to grant concessions for the sake of argument. 53 I. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE A 439-40 H 518 W 109 Note (ii); 443-4; 172-5 A448-50; H515-6 W172-5 Ne hoc feceris. Do not do this. Nihil gratiae concesseris. Make no concession to favor. Fecerit aliquid Philippus cur adversus eum hoc decerneremus: quid Perseus, novus rex, meruit? Let Philip have perpetrated something wherefore we determine this against him. What has Perseus, the new king, merited? Ne aequaveritis Hannibali Philippus. Pyrrho certe aequabitis. Granted: you have not equated Phillip with Hannibal. You have certainly equated him with Pyrrhus. 14.74 Hortatory Subjunctive: 1st Person When the subjunctive is used in the first person with ‘jussive’ force it is called ‘hortatory’. For one does not command but ‘urges’ oneself: Sed maneam. ‘But I must wait.’ 14.75 Deliberative Subjunctive (non, nonne) Orders are given in the jussive subjunctive. Questions about such orders are asked in the subjunctive as well, though the verb is now called a deliberative subjunctive. Thus, someone may order: ‘Maneant.’ (‘Let them stay.’ Jussive Subj.) A question may follow: ‘Ubi maneant?’ (‘Where must they stay?’ Deliberative Subj.) 14.8 Imperative: Concrete 2nd Pers. Orders The Latin progressive system (but not the perfect) has an imperative mood. This conjugation includes 2nd and 3rd persons, singular and plural, active and passive. (In English we only have 2nd person imperatives. Nor is their any difference in our singular and plural imperatives.) The 3rd person imperatives are rarely used. 14.81 Negated with noli, nolite + infinitive In Latin the imperative is rarely used in negative commands. The force is softened by using the imperative of the root verb nolo, nolle and the infintive: noli fumare or nolite fumare. (Do not want to smoke. = Do not smoke.) 54 15. Verbal Noun 15 Verbal Noun A verbal noun can name merely a noun derived from a verb, as ‘action’ is derived from ‘act’. In a more strict sense, a verbal noun retains certain verbal properties and thus is conceived as being ‘part’ of the verb. There are three verbal nouns of this sort in Latin: the infinitive, the gerund (not the gerundive), and the supine. The gerund and the supine are both more concrete than the infinitve. T 15.1 Infinitive The infinitive is a verbal noun that distinctly retains certain properties of the verb. All Latin infinitives have aspect (progressive or perfect), and voice. Some have the future tense. They do not have person, number, or mood. The infintive can take an object, especially the accusative. 15.11 Historic Infinitive The ‘historic’ infinitive is an infinitive used in excited or energetic speech to replace a finite verb. This happens especially with the later verbs in a list: Clamorem utrimque effecerunt, imperator utrimque Iovi vota suscipere, utrimque hortari exercitum. ‘They raise a shout on either side. On either side the general offers vows to Jove, on either side he exhorts his army.’ Tum spectaculum horribile in campis patentibus: sequi, fugere, occidi, capi. ‘Then a horrible spectacle in the open fields: pursuit, flight, [men] being slaugtered and taken prisoner.’ 15.12 Complementary Infinitive (may have obj.) The infinitive may be used to complete a finite verb. Though it apparently began as the object of the finite verb (and thus an implicit accusative), such an infinitive easily gave rise to the sense that the infinitive determined an action not completely expressed by the finite verb, just as English completes ‘helping verbs’ with the infinitive (an older form than the infinitive with ‘to’): ‘He may ride.’ A 451 H 888 W 20 A 463 H 905 W 21 A 456-8 (452.3) W 22-3 55 I. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE A 452.1, 454-5 H 889 A 459 H 893, 897-904 W 25-34 A 451, 460 W 28 An excellent example is the complementary infintive with the verb possum. This verb had the well-established meaning, ‘he is able to act’, ‘he is powerful’. An infinitive may have been used to signify the action ‘he is able to do’. But this easily gave way to the sense that the infinitive was determining the ability left undetermined in the notion ‘is able’ or ‘can’. (We can hear this shift in sense in these English ‘equivalents’: ‘is able’ can be heard as complete, but ‘can’ demands at least an implicit complement.) Possum ambulare sed volim volare. ‘I can walk but I would like to fly.’ 15.13 Infinitive as Subject of Finite Verb As with other nouns, the infinitive can serve as the subject of a finite verb: Ambulare actio est. ‘To walk is an action.’ 15.14 Accusative-Infinitive Construction The accusative and an infinitive were used together as a single construction, first as an object, but later even as the subject, of a verb. 15.141 Object The accusative-infinitive construction serves as a ‘double’ object of a verb. The accusative is the ‘material’ accusative and the infinitive is the ‘formal’ accusative. In English we do this too: ‘I want him to come.’ Volo eum venire. 15.142 Subject of finite verb, esp. ‘impersonal verb’ The Latins became so accustomed to accusative-infinitive construction as a certain whole that they began to use it as the subject of certain verbs: Oportet eum venire, ‘It is necessary that he come,’ or ‘He must come.’ 56 15. Verbal Noun 15.15 Infinitive Signifying Purpose The infinitive does not signify purpose in the classical period of Latin, but it does before and after: Venturus est iudicare vivos et mortuos, ‘He is to come to judge the living and the dead.’ 15.2 Gerund The gerund is a verbal noun, that is, a noun derived from verbs. In Latin the gerund looks exactly like the future passive participle with two limitations. The gerund is only neuter and singular, while the participle can be of any gender. Further, the gerund is never used in the nominative case, while the participle can be used in any case. Though it is indistinguishable in form from many parts of the future passive participle, the gerund must be understood in an active sense: modum praedicandi, ‘the mode of predicating’. The gerund praedicandi names the action of ‘predicating’. The future passive participle praedicandum would speak of something ‘to be predicated’, agendum ‘something to be done’. 15.21 Accusative, usually with ad Nulla res tantum ad dicendum proficit quantum scriptio. ‘Nothing accomplishes so much toward speaking as writing.’ 15.22 Genitive, modifying a noun or adjective Summa eludendi occasio est mihi nunc senes. ‘I now have a splendid chance of eluding the old men.’ [‘There is for me’ → ‘I now have’.] Sapientia ars vivendi putanda est. ‘Wisdom ought to be thought the art of living.’ [Be sure you can distinguish the gerund and the participle in this sentence.] 15.23 Dative equites tegendo satis latebrosum locum. . . ‘sufficiently shady place for concealing horsemen. . . ’ A 159 H 864 W 201, 205 A 506 H 864 W 205(a) A 504 H 864 W 205(b) A 505 H 864 W 205(c) 57 I. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE A 507 H 864 W 205(d) A 508 H 157 W 152 A 509 H 860 W 152 A 510 H 861-3 W 153 15.24 Ablative, often with an object 15.241 Without Preposition (bare instrumental ablative) Sum defessus quaeritando. ‘I am tired with asking.’ 15.242 With a Preposition: ab, de, in, ex, pro de bene beateque vivendo disputare. . . ‘to argue about living well and happily . . . ’ 15.3 Supine (relic of a fourth declension noun) The Latin supine is what remains of various fourth declension verbal nouns: factu, ‘to do’; factum, ‘to say’. They are ‘supine’ or ‘lying on their backs’ because they have ‘declined’ to the accusative and ablative (perhaps the dative), while losing the nominative and genitive. Many supines are used only in common phrases: mirabile dictu, ‘wonderful to tell’. 15.31 Accusative The accusative form is used without a preposition representing what it signifies as the goal of movement: Legatos ad Caesarem mittunt rogatum auxilium. ‘They are sending legates to Caesar to ask for help.’ Stultia est, pater, venatum ducere invitas canes. ‘It is foolishness, father, to take hounds hunting against their will.’ 15.32 Ablative-Dative Some confusion occurred of the ablative and dative forms of the supine. Often grammarians do not distinguish any dative from from the ablative. Dictu quam re facilius est provinciam rebellatricem confecisse. ‘To completely subjugate a rebellious province is easier in talking than in reality.’ ‘To completely subjugate a rebellious province is easier to say than to do.’ 58 16. Participle (Verbal Adjective) ‘To completely subjugate a rebellious province is easier said than done.’ 16 Participle (Verbal Adjective) The participle is a verbal ‘adjective’, that is, an adjective derived from the verb. It shares in the verb’s power to represent something as flowing and moving and may take an object or refer to time, aspect, and voice. But it also represents what it signifies as inhering in another, unlike the gerund, supine, and the infinitive, which all represent something as standing by itself in some way, however concretely. 16.1 Kind 16.11 Progressive Active The Latin pure progressive participle is active and does not, strictly speaking, suggest time, although it is generally called the present active participle. Rather, it represents what it signifies as an activity or action occurring in what is signified by the word it modifies. This participle has a stem ending in -nti-: agens, agentis ‘acting’ from ago, agere ‘to act’. 16.12 Perfect Passive The Latin perfect participle generally has passive force (but sometimes middle) and serves as the verb’s fourth principal part. Its endings are -tus, -itus, or -sus. Both praedicatum and subiectum are the perfect passive participles ‘predicated’ and ‘subjected’ used substantively as the nouns ‘predicate’ and ‘subject’. 16.13 Future Active The future active participle is formed by adding the suffix -turus, -tura, -turum. The very word ‘future’ is derived from such a participle, futurus. These are the rarest of the participles. A 488-500 H 909 W 89, 202 A 117b, 118, 490 H 307 A 491 A 498-9 59 I. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE A 158.d, 500 H 288 W 202-3 A 196 H 868-9; 878-84 W 204 H 870-7 W 206 16.14 Future Passive Another future participle suggests principally the notion of necessity. This has taken on some passive (or middle) force and thus it is called the future passive participle. It also has a characteristic ending: -ndus, -nda, -ndum. Examples are agenda ‘things to be done’, ‘what must be done’; legendum, ‘what is about to be read’, ‘what must be read’. This participle is often called the ‘gerundive’. But this describes only one of the uses of the participle. 16.141 In Passive (‘Second’) Periphrastic A very common use of the future passive participle is in the passive periphrastic. The participle is used with some finite form of sum, esse. While it states that something is ‘about to be done’, its implies that it ‘must be done’. Hoc sciendum est. ‘This is going (about) to be known.’ → ‘This must be known.’ This construction is called ‘periphrastic’ because it speaks around (‘peri’) the statement (‘phrasis’) actually intended. 16.142 As Gerundive Yet another use of the future passive participle has given it the name gerundive. Here the future passive participle ‘replaces’ a (neuter) gerund in some construction with a noun. In fact (a) the noun takes on the syntactical relations appropriate to the gerund (which is a noun), while (b) the participle must agree (as any adjective) in gender, number, and case with the noun. Meaning does not change. Accusative: ad delendum urbes → ad urbes delendas. In the phrase ad urbes delendum (‘toward destroying the cities’), the gerund delendum serves as accusative object of the preposition ad, while the noun urbes is the object of the gerund (a verbal noun). When the ‘gerundive’ is employed, the noun urbes becomes the accusative object of the preposition ad, while the future passive participle, the ‘gerundive’ delendas modifies urbes (in feminine, plural, accusative to agree with urbes). The phrase ad urbes delendas seems to mean ‘toward the cities to be destroyed’ 60 16. Participle (Verbal Adjective) but it actually means ‘toward destroying the cities’, just as did the original construction. Ablative: de quaerendum, de collocandum pecuniam → de quaerenda, de collocanda pecunia. De quaerenda, de collocanda pecunia. . . a quibusdam optimis viris disputatur. ‘A discussion is held by certain excellent men on acquiring and investing money.’ Use of the gerund would result in the construction de quaerendo, de collocando pecuniam, which presents the gerunds quaerendo and collocando as ablative objects of de and the accusative noun pecuniam as the object of both gerunds. With the ‘gerundive’ introduced, the noun becomes the ablative pecunia as the object of de, while the future passive participles or gerundives agree with it in gender, number, and case, quaerenda and collocanda. The phrase de quaerenda, de collocanda pecunia may seem to mean ‘on money to be acquired, to be invested’, but it means ‘on acquiring and investing money’. Genitive: causa parandari naves → navium parandarum causa. Caesar navium parandarum causa moratur. ‘Caesar delays for the purpose of preparing the ships.’ Use of the gerund would result in the construction causa parandi naves, which presents the gerund parandi as an objective genitive of causa and the accusative noun naves as the object of the gerund. With the ‘gerundive’ introduced, the noun becomes the genitive navium, while the future passive participle or gerundive agrees in gender, number, and case, parandarum. The phrase causa navium parandarum may seem to mean ‘for the purpose of ships to be prepared’, but it means ‘for the purpose of preparing the ships. Dative: bonus alendo pecus → bonus pecori alendo. Mons pecori bonus alendo erat. ‘The mountain was good for nourishing sheep.’ 61 I. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE W88 A494; W97 A495; W97 A496; W100 Use of the gerund would result in the construction alendo pecus, with the gerund in the dative alendo and the noun as an accusative object (pecus) of the gerund. With the ‘gerundive’ introduced, the noun becomes neuter dative singular pecori, while the future passive participle or ‘gerundive’ agrees in gender, number, and case alendo. The phrase pecori alendo may seem to mean ‘for sheep to be nourished’, but it means ‘for nourishing sheep’. 16.143 Adjectival Use of the Future Passive Participle At times, though rarely in Classical Latin, the future passive participle is used merely as an adjective or predicate adjective. Hence, from sequor, sequi ‘to follow’, we get secundum ‘what is about to follow’, ‘the following’, ‘second’: secundo modo ‘in the following mode’, ‘in the second mode’. Again, rebus obtinendibus ‘by things to be obtained’. 16.2 Adjectival Use of Participle The participle is an adjective and as such, every use of it will involve some adjectival construction. 16.21 Epithet (Mere Adjective) The participle may be used merely to modify a noun: Aqua ferventi Philodamus perfunditur. ‘Philodamus was soused with boiling water.’ 16.22 Predicate Adjective The participle may serve as a predicate adjective: Fuit civitas florens. ‘The city was flourishing.’ 16.23 State (Perfect) The perfect participle may be constructed with esse to denote a state rather than the perfect passive tense: Hannibal victus est. ‘Hannibal is beaten,’ rather than ‘Hannibal has been beaten,’ or ‘Hannibal was beaten.’ Context alone allows one to distinguish such meanings, though sometimes either is possible. 62 16. Participle (Verbal Adjective) 16.24 Substantive Use As any adjective, the Latin participle can be used substantively: Timentes confirmat. ‘He encourages the fearful.’ Iacet corpus dormientis ut mortui. ‘The body of a sleeper lies like that of the dead.’ 16.3 Adverbial Uses of the Participle The participle or participial phrase may have an adverbial force, though it serves syntactically as an adjective. With such force the participle in some way explains the predicate. Various ways of doing so are distinguished by grammarians, though these are neither exhaustive nor mutually exclusive. 16.31 Expressing Time or Circumstance Plato scribens est mortuus. ‘Plato died writing.’ Hannibal Gracchum in insidias inductum sustulit. ‘Hannibal destroyed Gracchus having been led into an ambush.’ = ‘Hannibal led Gracchus into an ambush and destroyed him.’ 16.32 Expressing Cause, Concession, Condition, Purpose Dionysius cultros metuens tonsorios candente carbone sibi ardurebat capillum. ‘Dionysius, fearing the barber’s shears, used to singe his hair with glowing coal.’ [N.B. candente is another participle and involved an another construction.] Ut oculus sic animus se non videns alia cernit. ‘As the eye, so the soul, though not seeing itself, perceives other things.’ Non mihi nisi admonito venisset in mentem. ‘It would not have occurred to me unless reminded.’ Galli ad Clusium venerunt legionem Romanam oppugnaturi. The Gauls came to Clusium intending to attack the Roman legion. W101 W88 W90 W92 63 I. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE A 419-420 H 912-4 W 93 W 94 (Cf. LMWL 37-40) 16.33 Ablative Absolute Urbe capta, domum reduco exercitum. ‘With the city captured, I am leading my army home.’ 16.34 After Verbs of Perceiving The participle can be used after verbs of seeing and perceiving where an infinitive would be used in an accusative-infinitive construction: Video puerum currentem. ‘I see the boy running,’ rather than ‘I see the running boy.’ 16.4 Participial Phrase The participle, while serving as an adjective, may introduce a participial phrase insofar as it is modified by a prepositional phrase or an adverb or completed by some object: Hannibal Gracchum in insidias inductum sustulit. ‘Hannibal destroyed Gracchus having been led into an ambush.’ Dionysius cultros metuens tonsorios candente carbone sibi ardurebat capillum. ‘Dionysius, fearing the barber’s shears, used to singe his hair with glowing coal.’ 17 Adverbs The adverb is part of speech that involves several difficulties: Is it truly one part of speech? Which of the two principal parts of speech does it properly share in or do they share in both? Even the question about its unity does not seem to have a perfectly simple answer. ‘Pronominal adverbs’ such as ‘thus’ and ‘how’, and the Latin sic and perhaps quomodo, seem to share in the noun through the pronoun, while the ‘truer’ adverbs, ‘fast’, ‘soon’, ‘well’, ‘quickly’, and even ‘inside’ and ‘outdoors’, ‘today’, ‘next month’ and ‘tomorrow’, seem to share in the noun through the adjective, or at least by falling away from the noun in the same ‘direction’as–though farther than–does the adjective. Thus ‘true’ adverbs represent what they signify as having a determinate nature 64 17. Adverbs or quality, while the pronominal adverbs represent what they signify in an indeterminate manner. Again, adverbs–though not all, for example ‘very’–are found to ‘modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs’. Can they modify such different things with a single force? Further, the modification of verbs and other adverbs– at least when these adverbs modify verbs, as in ‘runs straight’ and ‘runs very crookedly’–may suggest a power distinct from that by which adverbs modify adjectives and adverbs modifying adjectives, such as ‘very tall’, and ‘much too tall’? Yet again, do adverbs have the same power when they modify participles? Do they do so though the participle’s participation in the verb or in the adjective, through its participation in both, and at once or does this depend upon context? Insofar as the adverb modifies verbs and words depending upon verbs, it seem to have some ‘kinship’ with the verb, and thus one may think that it shares in the verb’s representation of something as in some way ‘flowing’ or ‘moving’. Does it have the same character when it modifies adjectives and words depending upon them? Though these questions cannot be answered here completely, at least this much can be said. Like the adjective or ‘pronominal adjective’, the adverb seems to represent something as ‘inhering’ in or ‘modifying’ another. Unlike the adjective, however, what it modifies is not something represented as standing by itself. But there does not seem to be one simple and positive way of describing the manner of representing something proper to the various parts of speech the adverb can modify. Most generally, one can say that it represents something as apt to inhere in or modify something represented as ‘not standing by itself’. 17.1 Positive Adverbs 17.11 Simply Positive Most adverbs merely indicate that something is done (or has some quality) in one way or another: Bene currit sed male loquitur. ‘He runs well, but he speaks badly.’ 65 I. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE 17.12 Comparative Adverbs Some adverbs introduce some comparison with another. These can be completed in the same manner that comparative adjectives are completed: (a) with quam introducing that to which something is compared in the same construction: Loquitur melius quam Cicero! ‘He speaks better than Cicero [does]. (b) with that to which something is compared in the ablative: Loquitur melius Cicerone! ‘He speaks better than Cicero.’ Again, the comparative adverb can be used without completion to indicate a high degree: Loquitur citius. ‘He speaks rather quickly.’ 17.13 Superlative Adverbs Some adverbs are superlative. They indicate that something is done (or has a quality) in an extreme manner. These are completed by a genitive construction, as the superlative adjective: Deorum maxime Mercurium colunt. ‘Of the gods they worship Mercury most.’ Used without completion the superlative adverb indicated eminence: Maxime Mercurium colunt. ‘They worship Mercury very much.’ 17.2 Negative Adverbs In Latin negative adverbs generally negate the word before which they are placed. Circulus non est triangulus. ‘A circle is not a triangle.’ But sometimes in context the negative adverb is brought to the beginning of a sentence for emphasis. Non triangulus circulus est. ‘A circle is not a triangle.’ 66 17. Adverbs 17.3 Interrogative Adverbs Many questions are asked which do not inquire into what has happened or who has done it or to whom. These questions generally employ an interrogative adverb: ‘why’ and ‘how’, ‘where’, ‘when’, ‘whether’, and so on. Interrogative adverbs are particularly numerous in Latin: cur, utrum, quo (meaning ‘where’), ubi, quando, quantum, quare (←qua re), quale, and so on. Note that many Latin words beginning with qu- are ‘related’ historically to English question words beginning with wh-. 17.4 Relative Adverbs Relative adverbs refer to some antecedent, which may be an adverb or a noun: Domus est locus ubi vivimus. ‘Home is the place where we live.’ Vivit hic ubi viximus. ‘He lives here where we lived.’ Note that relative adverbs share in the pronoun and to this extent, they introduce two syntactical concerns. First, they bring about a subordinate clause (21-27). Second, an antecedant, explicit or implicit, must be identified for the most complete understanding of the relative adverb. 17.5 Use of Adverb 17.51 Modifying Verb (Finite or Non-finite Forms, including participles) The most common use of an adverb is to modify a verb, finite or non-finite: Scribit bene. ‘He writes well.’ Potest scribere bene. ‘He can write well.’ Ars bene scribendi communis non est. ‘The art of writing well is not common.’ In fluminis citius fluentibus non nato. ‘I don’t swim in rivers flowing very quickly.’ 67 I. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE 17.52 Predicate Adverb (In Nominal Sentence) The adverb may serve as the predicate in a nominal sentence, though this is rarely noted: Sursum corda! ‘Hearts up!’ Ibi est canis. ‘There is that dog.’ 17.53 Modifying Adjective Adverbs regularly modify adjectives: Postulabat aquam bene calidam. ‘He was asking for very hot water.’ 17.54 Modifying Adverb or Prepositional Phrase An adverb may modify another adverb or an adverbial prepositional phrase: Non saepe postulabat aquam calidam. ‘He not often was asking for hot water.’ Saepe in ira loquitur. ‘He spoke in anger often.’ 17.55 Adversative Adverbs with Conjunctive Force Many adverbs in Latin propose something in opposition to what was said before. Such adverbs are said to have adversative force. This force need not be strong; some adverbs are only mildly adversative. Thus autem and vero are generally not as strong as tamen. All these words are postpositive, that is, they cannot come at the beginning of a sentence but must follow the first word or words of the sentence they present as adversative. The English word ‘however’, in its postpositive use, has this character. This adversative character is perhaps encouraged by their position close to the beginning of a sentence to give such adverbs a conjunctive force. Although they are not full-fledged conjunctions as sed is, they do relate the sentence in which they are present to the previous sentence. Often this is sufficient to join sentences into a compound sentence within one period, as in the following example. Sometimes this happens in independent sentences. But often this happens within a single sentence without any additional conjunction: alia. . . secundum complexionem dicuntur, alia vero 68 18. Interjection sine complexione. ‘some. . . are said according to composition, but others without composition.’ Other common examples are autem, tamen. 18 Interjection The interjection holds its place among the parts of speech most tenuously. The Greeks did not include it in their list of eight parts. (They raised the status of the article.) But the Latins and the ‘modern’ grammarians do. The objection arises from the fact that the interjection does not seem sufficiently distinct from the cries and calls that animals use to express their passions. To this extent, the interjection does not seem to signify a thought, as does the word ‘pain’, but the ‘brute’ fact that I am feeling pain, ‘Ow!’ This is not the place to propose any determination of this question. Nonetheless, it is not hard to see that two reasons lead grammarians to admit the interjection to the rank of ‘part of speech’. First, reason, by convention for various languages, does consecrate certain sounds to signify such expressions of passion: ‘ouch’, ‘wow’, ‘oh’, ‘ooo’, ‘ayayai’, ‘oh lala’, and so on. (Of all words, however, in any language, these are the most difficult to agree upon.) The second reason for including them as parts of speech is their ‘integration’ with what is undeniably speech: ‘Wow! Did you hear the way he used that word?’ Since interjections do appear integrated with spoken or written language, any grammar must make some mention of this ‘part’ and identify the ways in which it may be encountered. 18.1 Absolutely, without any noun 18.2 With Noun in Apposition 18.21 Vocative in Apposition 18.22 Nominative in Apposition 18.3 With Noun Complement 18.31 Dative Complement Vae mihi! ‘Woe to me!’ or ‘Woe is me!’ 69 I. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE A323-4 18.32 Accusative Complement En me! ‘Look! Here I am.’ 19 Conjunction Like the preposition, the conjunction is an ancillary part of speech. Its force lies wholly in its relation to other words. The conjunction is like a chain or like glue. It ‘joins’ other words. Sometimes a conjunction joins two words immediately; sometimes it joins phrases; sometimes it joins sentences. One must keep in mind that a conjunction immediately joins two things to one another. In context, a conjunction may join a whole ‘list’. In written English we now introduce commas where conjunctions have been ‘suppressed’, perhaps to avoid repetition: ‘bacon, eggs, orange juice, and coffee’, ‘coffee, tea, or both?’ Such lists occur in written Latin, with and without explicit conjunctions. Conjunctions are distinguished insofar as they ‘yoke together’ (conjungo) words, phrases, or sentences in different ways. 19.1 Coordinating Conjunction Coordinating conjunctions ‘coordinate’, that is, they bring two words, phrases, or sentences together as ‘equal’ to one another. This is most clear by contrast with the ‘subordinate’ conjunctions by which one of the two things conjoined is ‘subordinated’ to or ‘put under’ the other. Note carefully, however, that ‘coordination’ merely refers to joining and does not express the manner in which the words, phrases, or sentences are joined. 19.11 Kind of Coordinating Conjunction The principal distinction in conjunctions that ‘join equally’ is whether they join to ‘put together’ or to ‘distinguish’ words, phrases, sentences as if ‘equal’. Those that put speech together are called ‘coordinating’ conjunctions’; those that ‘distinguish’ are called, paradoxically, ‘disjunctive’ conjunctions. 70 19. Conjunction 19.111 Copulative Conjunctions: et, atque 19.112 Disjunctive Conjunctions: sed, nec, neque, aut 19.113 Relative Pronoun used with conjunctive force. Woodcock 230(6): “The relative serves as a connexion: The relative pronoun is often used, especially from the classical period onwards, instead of a coordinating conjunction or particle, to serve as a connexion between two independent sentences. The qui-clause is not then adjectival and subordinate, but qui = et is, sed is, is autem, is enim, is igitur, etc.: Cic. Mil. res loquitur ipsa, iudices; quae (= et ea) semper valet plurimum. ‘The fact speaks for itself, Gentlemen; and that always has the greatest weight. . . ’ “It will be observed that the relative thus used contains within itself the sense of whatever connecting particle is needed, and these particles (et, sed, enim, igitur, etc.) are not added to the relative. The only exception is tamen, but that can also be added to sed or at.” 19.12 Use of Coordinating Conjunction Full identification of a coordinating conjunction demands attention to what it joins or coordinates. Whatever things are joined by the conjunction will become ‘compound’: a compound subject, a compound predicate, a compound object, even a compound sentence. 19.121 To conjoin parts of a compound subject or a compound predicate or a compound object ‘Jack and Jill went up the hill.’ ‘Jack went up the hill and fetched a pail.’ ‘Jack fetched a pail and a shovel.’ 19.122 To conjoin adjectives, adverbs, or prepositional phrases ‘Jack climbed the steep and rocky hill.’ ‘Jack climbed the hill quickly and quietly.’ ‘Jack climbed the hill quickly and in silence.’ ‘Jack climbed the hill in silence and with speed.’ A308f W230(6) 71 I. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE 19.123 To conjoin parts of object of prepositional phrase ‘Jack climbed the hill without shoes or sandals.’ 19.124 To conjoin sentences (clauses), causing a compound sentence ‘Jack went up the hill and Jill fetched a pail of water.’ 19.2 Subordinating Conjunction, causing a complex sentence The nature and causes of the complex sentence will be examined later in sections 21–27. Here it will suffice to say that the complex sentence is composed of two or more sentences of which at least one, the subordinate clause, is ‘ordered’ to another as if some part of it. In this way, the subordinate clause can have the force of a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. Sometimes this subordination is caused by a subordinating conjunction. (Various relative and interrogative words can also bring about such subordination, but only relative words can introduce an adjective clause.) Listed below are the principal subordinate conjunctions in Latin followed by the functions of clauses they introduce. Where both noun and adverb clauses are possible, the more common function is listed first. antequam: adverb cum: adverb donec: adverb dum: adverb postea quam, postquam: adverb priusquam: adverb quamdiu: adverb quamvis: adverb quia: adverb, noun quin (qui-ne): noun, adverb (perhaps with relative force) quod: noun, adverb (relative pronoun quod introduces adjective clause) quominus: adverb quoniam: adverb, noun quotiens: adverb 72 19. Conjunction quotienscumque: adverb si: adverb tamquam: adverb ubi: adverb ut: noun, adverb 73 II THE COMPOUND SENTENCE 20 The Compound Sentence The compound sentence must be distinguished from two others, the simple sentence and the complex sentence. In common with the complex sentence, the compound sentence is ‘composed’ from other sentences. The simple sentence is composed immediately from its subject and predicate, although the subject or the predicate of a simple sentence, or even both, may be composed—’Jack and Jill went up the hill and fetched a pail of water.’ The difference between the compound and the complex sentence arises from the manner in which many sentences are composed and become one sentence. The complex sentence joins its parts so that one is a functional part of another and is said to ‘depend upon’ that other: ’Jack went up the hill, while Jill fetched a pail of water.’ The compound sentence joins its parts without such dependence. One sentence does not become a functional part of the other but they stand as grammatically ‘equal’ to one another: ’Jack went up the hill and Jill fetched a pail of water.’ Note well that the compound sentence (as well as the complex sentence) is defined through having parts that are sentences. This does not demand that it be composed from simple sentences as in the example above. A compound sentence may be composed from parts that are themselves compound or complex, as well as from simple sentences, or from any combination of these. This is particularly important in Latin in which long, composed sentences have a stylistic elegance that usually seems pompous in English. A 278 H 1012 75 II. THE COMPOUND SENTENCE 20.1 Coordination (Parataxis) Two or more sentences may be joined as ‘equal’ parts of a compound sentence. Such sentences are almost always ‘coordinated’ by a coordinating conjunction. Such a conjunction does not make one sentence to depend upon, or become part of, the other: ‘Jack went up the hill and Jill fetched a pail of water.’ Note carefully that such sentences are grammatically one but compound. Logically, however, they propose many propositions. 20.2 Kind of Coordinating Conjunction All coordinating conjunctions join sentences or clauses into on compound sentence. They are distinguised by the manner in which they do so. A coordinating conjunction is copulative when it merely joins sentences to one another without introducing any opposition: ‘The cow jumped over the moon and the dish ran away with the spoon.’ A coordinating conjunction is disjunctive when it joins sentences to oppose them in some way: ‘Jack went up the hill or Jill went down the hill.’ ‘Jack went up the hill but Jill went down the hill.’ Even disjunctive conjunctions can be distinguished. Some oppose exclusively, that is, they introduce complete opposition: ‘Jack went up the hill but Jill went down the hill.’ Others, however, can oppose inclusively: ‘Jack went up the hill or Jill went down the hill.’ The one need not exclude the other. 76 III THE COMPLEX SENTENCE The Nature of the Complex Sentence The complex sentence arises when one sentence (called the ‘dependent sentence or the ‘subordinate clause’) depends upon another, so that it cannot properly stand alone but plays a role in the sentence upon which it depends. For example, in the complex sentence, ‘He walked after he crawled,’ the clause ‘after he crawled’ depends upon the clause ‘he walked’. Note that the dependence of one clause upon another is distinct from, and may even be opposite to, the dependence in the things described. In the complex sentence, ‘I got sick because the spider bit me,’ the sentence ‘because the spider bit me’ depends upon the sentence ‘I got sick’. But the sentence expresses a dependence of the sickness upon the spider bite. This syntactic dependence of one sentence upon the other leads many to call the other sentence the ‘independent’ sentence, but this is problematic for several reasons. First, the other sentence may itself depend upon yet another sentence, as in ‘The dog barked since it was frightened when I came in.’ Here, ‘when I came in’ depends upon ‘since it was frightened’. But this clause depends upon ‘the dog barked.’ Second, the other sentence may use the dependent sentence in so integral a manner that it cannot stand by itself. But this trait is often ascribed to the dependent sentence. Thus, in the complex sentence ‘I struck whoever struck me first,’ ‘I struck’ cannot stand by itself as a complete sentence. For this reason it is better to speak of the other sentence as the ‘main’ clause, though even this expression must be understood in relation to the dependent clause. A 278 H 1013-17 77 III. THE COMPLEX SENTENCE W 131 Analyzing the Syntax of the Complex Sentence Several aspects of the complex sentence demand attention. Since its syntax, especially the mood of the dependent sentence, arises to some extent from its original formation, it is worthwhile attending to the way in which complex sentences have come to be (21). Identification of complex sentences depends upon familiarity with the various subordinating words that make one sentence depend upon another (22). The various dependent sentences can then be classified in two ways: according to the function the dependent clause plays in the sentence upon which it depends (23) and according to the mood and signficance of the finite verb used in the subordinate clause (24). Many particular considerations attend ‘conditions’, the clauses using the conjuntion si (‘if’), so these are considered in a separate section (25). Again, quotation or reported speech usually involves a complex sentence and the considerations proper to these sentences are discussed in a separate section (26). Finally, the tense and aspect used in dependent or subordinate clauses needs attention, especially when they use the subjunctive. The principles of such use, called the ‘sequence of tenses’, are discussed in section 27. 21 Formation of the Complex Sentence In general, subordinate clauses seem to have arisen from sentences originally coordinate. ‘This is to be done. The master says (so),’ became ‘The master says (that) this is to be done’. It is not hard to see from this example that some of subordinate clauses may have arisen from coordinate sentences in the jussive subjunctive. Again, sentences seem first to have been joined so as to depend merely by ‘parataxis’, placing one sentence next to another. ‘I know. He’s coming.’ This placement is sufficient to suggest some dependence of one upon another. In English this is produced merely by bringing the two sentences together under a single accent. ‘I kn´ow. He’s c´oming.’ This may become ‘I 78 22. Subordinating Words know he’s c´oming.’ Again, it may become: ‘I kn´ow he’s coming.’ A few examples of this remain in Latin: fac fidelis sis, ‘do it, be faithful’ sine amet, leave him be, let him love taceas oportet, be silent, it’s necessary Some subjunctive sentences, however, especially in Latin, were accompanied by adverbs, such as uti, (meaning ‘in some way’) which weakened to a conjuction, such as ut, which was finally understood to govern the dependent sentence. Hence a mere statement followed by the jussive subjunctive, Lex est: uti orbae nubant, ‘It’s the law: Orphans shall somehow marry,’ would have become a single complex sentence, Lex est ut orbae nubant, ‘The law is that orphans shall marry.’ One sees the general point here that the subjunctive subordinate clause in Latin uses the kind of subjunctive that would have been used independently, before the one sentence was subordinated to the other. Hence, subordinate clauses negated with non are thought to arise from the potential subjunctive, while those negated with ne are thought to arise from the jussive and the optative subjunctives. Not all subjunctive subordinate clauses, however, arise clearly from a distinct independent use. Thus conditions seem to arise from many independent uses. 22 Subordinating Words Subordination of one sentence to another to make one sentence out of many can be caused by words of two kinds. Some words, subordinate conjunctions, are formed precisely to do this. Other words that are not conjunctions can do this not from their genus but from their difference. They make one sentence to depend upon another by relating it to that other (relative words) or by making it the object of a verb concerning asking or knowing (interogative words). 79 III. THE COMPLEX SENTENCE A 279a H 615, 623 A 573-4 H 660 22.1 Subordinating Conjunctions 22.11 First forming noun clauses, then adverb clauses quin (qui-ne), quod 22.12 First forming adverb clauses, then noun clauses quoniam 22.13 Forming adverb clauses only antequamcum, donec, dum, postquam, priusquam, quamdiu, quamvis, quominus, quotiens, quotienscumque, si, tamquam, ubi 22.2 Relative Words 22.21 Pronoun: qui, quae, quod 22.22 Adjective: qui, quae, quod 22.23 Adverb 22.231 Place: ubi, quo, unde 22.232 Time: quando (cum), quotiens 22.233 Way: qua 22.234 Manner: uti, ut 22.235 Degree: quam 22.3 Interrogative Words (Indirect Question) 22.31 Pronoun: quis, quid 80 23. Function of the Subordinate Clause 22.32 Adjective: qui, quae, quod 22.33 Adverb 22.331 Place: ubi, quo, unde 22.332 Time: quando (cum), quotiens 22.333 Way: qua 22.334 Manner: uti, ut 22.335 Degree: quam 23 Function of the Subordinate Clause Every subordinate sentence or clause has the same relation to the sentence it depends on as a single word or a phrase might have. A subordinate clause can serve as a noun would: ‘I know that someone was murdered.’ But also, ‘I know how he did it.’ Again, such a clause can serve as an adjective would: ‘I know the man who committed the murder.’ Yet again, such a clause can serve as an adverb would: ‘I know this just as certainly as I know my own face.’ 23.1 Noun Clause The dependent clause may serve as a noun in the clause on which it depends. Hence, it may be a subject or object (usually direct). The principal conjunctions are in noun clauses quod, quia [‘that’, ‘the fact that’], ut (ne) [purpose]; relative and interrogative pronouns. Subject: Quae vivunt crescunt. ‘What lives grows.’ (The Latin sentence is in the plural.) Considerandum est quod calor qualitas est. ‘[The fact] that heat is a quality must be considered.’ Quaeratur utrum Deus sit. ‘It is asked whether God exist.’ A 560-76 81 III. THE COMPLEX SENTENCE A 436 Direct Object: Scio quod dixisti. ‘I know what you said.’ Scio quia hoc dixisti. ‘I know that you said this.’ Rubrius servis suis imperat ut ianuam clauderent. ‘Rubrius ordered to his servants that they close the door.’ ‘Rubrius ordered his servants to close the door.’ Rubrius servis suis imperat ne ianuam clauderent. ‘Rubrius ordered to his servants that they not close the door.’ ‘Rubrius ordered his servants not to close the door.’ 23.2 Adjective Clause: Relative Adjective or Pronoun The relative adjective or pronoun may introduce an adjective clause: Nuntios mittit qui haec nuntient. ‘He is sending messengers who will announce these things.’ 23.3 Adverb Clause: quia, quod [‘because’]; ut [‘as’]; other conj. & Relative Adv. Allegoria quandam machinam facit, ut [anima] levetur ad deum. The allegory makes a certain machine, so that the soul may be lifted to God. Allegoria quandam machinam facit, quia [animam] levat ad deum. The allegory makes a certain machine, because it lifts the soul to God. Mood and Significance of Subordinate Clause (Chapters 24–25) Latin does not clarify the significance of its subordinate clauses by precise subordinate conjunctions, as often as English usually does. Instead Latin uses the subjunctive with greater frequency and with greater significance than English. 82 24. Mood Thus, in English, the subjunctive has declined more and more, in proportion to the growth and increase of clear, distinct subordinate conjunctions. We rarely say, for example, ‘If he be the murderer, he will be hanged.’ Rather, we say, ‘If he is the murderer he will be hanged.’ In Latin, however, the subjunctive, is used with much greater force and significance. Even used independently, it is used to express differences, sometimes quite subtle, in the reality or likelihood of the matter spoken of. In the subordinate clause, the subjunctive takes on particular importance as a means by which the speaker clarifies that, and perhaps how, what he speaks of is not a fact or at least not an ascertained fact. For this reason, the various subordinate clauses used in Latin can be divided according to mood employed by finite verb used in that clause, if considered according to their significance. Some subordinate clauses exclusively employ the subjunctive. (24.1–24.5). Other subordinate clauses regularly employ the indicative, though they sometimes employ the subjunctive. (24.6–24.7) Yet others employ both the subjunctive and the indicative more or less equally. (24.8–25) 24 Mood Clauses Using Subjunctive (§24.1–24.5) 24.1 Indirect Question arising from Deliberative or Potential Subjunctive The deliberative subjunctive (14.75) seems to be the primary origin of the indirect question, which, in Latin, is regularly in the subjunctive. In indirect question the asking (or answering) of the question is reported. Usually the indirect question is joined to the main clause by an interrogative word. For example, Non dixit ubi maneant. ‘He has not said where they are to stay.’ The question is the object of the verb dixit. Nonetheless, many indirect questions seem reasonably enough to have their origin in the potential subjunctive. Many questions clearly employ the potential (and not the deliberative) subjunctive: H 660-2 W 135, 177-83 83 III. THE COMPLEX SENTENCE A 529-33 H 546 W 134 A563-566 H 637-41 W 139-46 Numquis homini tam mendaci crederet? ‘Would anyone have believed such a liar?’ Such subjunctives are maintained if the question becomes indirect: Non scio quis homini tam mendaci crederet? ‘I don’t know who would have believed such a liar.’ Over time, Latin established the subjunctive as the usual (though not invariable) mood for all indirect questions, even those which would be stated directly in the indicative, namely questions about facts. Quaerat utrum homo sit albus. ‘He asks whether the man be white.’ Quaeratur utrum Deus sit. ‘It is asked whether God exist.’ 24.2 Final Clause arising from Jussive Subjunctive Several kinds of Latin subordinate clause arose from the jussive subjunctive. These can generally be called final or purpose clauses, because they express purpose or will. These serve as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. 24.21 Noun Clause: ut (ne) with subj. The final noun clauses are perhaps the earliest of these. Such clauses will depend upon a main clause with verbs that signify commanding, advising, exhorting and so on: e.g. impero, rogo, moneo, suadeo, hortor, constituo. The subordinate clause usually serves as the direct object of this verb. Such clauses are therefore often called jussive noun clauses. The usual conjunction is ut, the negative is ne. In such clauses ut is usually translated ‘that’ and ne ‘that . . . not’. Rubrius servis suis imperat ut ianuam clauderent. ‘Rubrius ordered to his servants that they close the door [to close the door ].’ Rubrius servis suis imperat ne ianuam clauderent. ‘Rubrius ordered his servants that they not close the door.’ 84 24. Mood Since these final noun clauses (or jussive noun clauses) represent something as to be done, the subjunctive in the subordinate clause will be in the progressive rather than the perfect (which would suggest that it is complete). Reasons for this are given under the rubric ‘Sequence of Tenses’. (27) 24.22 Adjective Clause: qui, quae, quod with subj. Some final adjective clauses use the relative pronoun qui, quae, quod. This occurs in any case that agrees with the antecedant modified or as the object of a preposition. Final adjective clauses are also called relative clauses of purpose. Such clauses express the purpose behind the action described in the clause upon which they depend. Nuntios mittit qui haec nuntient. ‘He is sending messengers who are to announce these things.’ 24.23 Adverb Clause: ut (ne); quo=ut eo; with subj. Final adverb clauses (often called purpose clauses) explain the purpose of the action represented by the verb in the clause on which they depend. The conjunction is usually ut and the negative is ne. Note that here ut is translated ‘so that’, while ne is translated ‘lest’. Allegoria quandam machinam facit, ut [anima] leuetur ad deum. The allegory makes a certain machine, so that the soul may be lifted to God. 24.3 Result (Consecutive) Clause from Pot. Subj. The result clause (also called consecutive clause) arose from setting a statement in the potential subjunctive, which expresses some possibility, next to a statement describing the factual conditions of that possibility: ‘He’s running so fast. He may (somehow) escape.’ Note that the clause on which the result clause depends has and adverb (or comparative adjective?) in apposition to which the result clause is placed: ‘He’s running so fast. He may (somehow) escape.’ H625 W 147-8 H 546-9 W 147, 149-50 A 536-8 H 550 W 136-7 85 III. THE COMPLEX SENTENCE H 551-5 W 136 H 626 W 137 A 567-71 H 637-8 W 137, 168 A 534 H 633-6 W 155-6 In English mere rhythmic unity implies subordination of the second clause: ‘He’s running so fast he may escape.’ But in Latin the adverb uti (‘somehow’) has become a conjunction meaning ‘that’: Tam celeriter currit. Uti effugiat. ‘He’s running so fast. He may somehow escape.’ Tam celeriter currit ut effugiat. ‘He’s running so fast he may escape.’ Since the clause arises from the potential subjunctive, negation is indicated by non (rather than ne). 24.31 Adverb Clause: ut (non) with subj. The result clause first played the role of an adverb in the complex sentence: Tam celeriter currit ut effugiat. ‘He is running so fast that he may escape’ (or ‘so fast as to escape’). Quis est homo qui non fleret matrem Christi si videret? ‘Who is the man who would not weep if he were to see the mother of Christ?’ 24.32 Adjective Clause: qui, quae, quod with subj. The result clause may be adjectival: Nemo est qui id facere audeat, ‘There is no one who would dare to do that’. 24.33 Noun Clause: qui, quae, quod with subj. The result clause may be a noun clause: Qui homo id facere audeat? Nemo est. ‘What man would dare to do that? There is no one. 24.4 Characteristic-Generic Relative Clause (Pot. Subj.) Some historical grammarians see the relative clause of characteristic (also called the generic clause) as arising from the result clause; others see the result clause as arising from the relative clause of characteristic. 86 24. Mood Woodcock holds that the indicative relative clause merely describes how things stand, for example, Odimus eos qui haec faciunt. ‘We hate those who do these things.’ Such a sentence assumes that those hated have actually performed the actions in question. The subjunctive, however, especially as it has been developed in the result clauses, does not imply that something has actually happened, but only that it may result. Hence, the subjunctive in a relative clause comes to express the sort or kind (genus) apt to act in such a way: Odimus eos qui haec faciant. ‘We hate the people who would do these things.’ This sentence indicates what sort of person we hate, whether or not the actions in question have actually resulted from his character. The second explanation (see Allen & Greenough 534) holds that the possibility implied in the potential subjunctive first brought about the relative clause of characteristic which merely suggested what such a person or thing would do. This led to the sense that such action would result from certain circumstances described in the indicative clauses upon which such clauses depend. 24.5 Fear Clause from Optative Subjunctive The fear clause arose from a sentence indicating fear (usually with a verb such as metuo or timeo) next to a sentence, by parataxis, employing the optative subjunctive to indicate what the speaker desired to happen. Timeo. Ne pluat. ‘I’m afraid. May it not rain.’ Metuit. Uti veniat illa. ‘He’s afraid. May she (somehow) come.’ Over time the subjunctive sentence was felt to depend upon the sentence indicating fear. But this has produced some paradoxical results, for what was desired is the opposite of what was feared: Timeo ne pluat. ‘I fear it will rain.’ Metuit ut veniat illa. ‘He fears that she may not come.’ With the form employing a negative the word ‘lest’ can help in translation: Timeo ne pluat. ‘I fear lest it rain.’ A 564 H 642-4 W 138, 188-90 87 III. THE COMPLEX SENTENCE H 615-24 W 230 (1,2,6) Clauses Principally Using Indicative (§24.6–24.7) 24.6 Pure Relative Clause with Indicative All relative clauses in Latin, as well as English, are formed by means of a relative word which, originally through parataxis, then through syntaxis, replaces some word that would have been used in the relative clause, were it a simple, independent sentence. This relative word may be a pronoun, adjective, or adverb. Note carefully that identification of the sort of conjunction used, whether a pronoun, adjective, or adverb, does not suffice to determine how the clause itself functions in the complex sentence. The relative clause is in principle an adjective clause, modifying its antecedant in the clause upon which it depends. For this reason, the Latin relative pronoun or adjective must agree with its antecedant in gender and number, but the sort of relative word employed, and, if appropriate, its case, depends upon its role in the relative clause. So, in the sentence, ‘I know the man who committed the murder,’ a relative pronoun introduces a clause that modifies ‘man’ as if an adjective. In the sentence, ‘I know the man whose brother committed the murder,’ a relative adjective does the same. Again, in the sentence, ‘I know the room where the murder was committed,’ a relative adverb serves this purpose. Sometimes, in Latin as well as in English, the antecedant is ‘suppressed’, especially if it is general or clear from context: ‘I know who committed the murder.’ Such suppression gives the relative clause the force of a noun. 24.61 Kinds of Relative Word The relative clause using the indicative mood describes or determines its antecedent. Its standard use is therefore adjectival even when the relative pronoun or adverb is used: ‘The man who is standing there,’ ‘The philosopher to whom I introduced you’. With an implicit antecedent, the relative clause can serve as a noun clause: ‘to whom it may concern,’ ‘Who laughs last laughs best.’ The relative adjective modifies some noun in the relative clause. These causes generally operate as adjectives: ‘The dress is white, which color is her favorite.’ 88 24. Mood With a relative adverb, through suppression of an adverbial antecedant, the clause can serve as an adverb clause: ‘The murder took place [there] where you are now standing.’ 24.62 Determination of the Antecedent Another distinction in the relative clause is its restrictive or non-restrictive use. This distinction describes the manner in which the relative clause determines its antecedent. 24.621 Descriptive, Non-restrictive Clause When the clause is non-restrictive, it does not determine its antecedent in a manner necessary to the understanding or truth of the predication in the sentence upon which it depends. In English the non-restrictive relative clause is commonly designated by commas: ‘Socrates, who was the first great philosopher, fought bravely in the war with Persia.’ 24.622 Restrictive Clause The restrictive clause, however, determines its antecedent in a manner necessary to the understanding or the truth of the predication in the sentence upon which it depends. For example, ‘The poet who wrote the Iliad is not, according to Samuel Butler, the one who wrote the Odyssey.’ 24.7 Temporal Clause not employing cum Some clauses are subordinated by conjunctions signifying time. These serve as adverbs expressing the time of the action signified in the clause upon which they depend. Such temporal clauses represent the action in the ‘main clause’ as occuring after, at, or before the time of temporal clause itself. Most of these subordinate clauses use the indicative, especially when time is referred to merely as a fact determining the truth of the statement. With temporal conjunctions other cum, the subjunctive is used in a few exceptional cases mentioned in the remainder of this section. With the conjunction cum, however, the subjunctive is as common as the indicative. The distinction of clauses emplying cum are discussed in the next section, 24.8. A 541 H 556-7 W 214 89 III. THE COMPLEX SENTENCE A 543 H 558 W 215 A 552 W 218 H 569-70 W 219, 221 A 528 H 594 W 220 24.71 Time after which: post(ea)quam, ubi, etc. with indic. Time after which is usually signified by the conjunction postquam: Postquam a paradisi gaudiis expulsum est genus humanum. . . caecum cor. . . habet. ‘Since the human race was expelled from the joys of paradise, it has a blind heart.’ 24.72 Time at which: dum, donec, quoad, quamdui, quando Time at which is usually signified by dum, quando, or cum (24.81): Dum recognoscimus exteriora verba, pervenimus ad interiorem intelligentiam. ‘When we recognize exterior words, we arrive at the interior understanding.’ Quando [Deus] vult amari, sponsum se nominat. ‘When God wishes to be loved, he calls himself a groom.’ 24.721 Meaning ‘as long as’ or ‘while yet’ with indic. The ‘time at which’ is sometimes a period including the time of the clause upon which the temporal clause depends: Interim, dum de conditionibus inter se agunt, paulatim circumventus interficitur. ‘In the meantime, while they were negotiating with one another about terms, he was gradually surrounded and slain.’ Dum ea Romani parant consultantque, iam Saguntum summa vi oppugnabatur. ‘While the Romans were making these preparations and deliberating, Saguntum was already being vigorously attacked.’ 24.722 dum meaning ‘so long as’ with juss. subj. (ne) The jussive subjunctive can suggest a ‘proviso’: Adsit dum ne nos interpellet. ‘Let him be present, so long as [provided that] he does not interrupt us.’ 90 24. Mood Cicero, On Offices 1.89: Mediocritas placet Peripateticis et recte placet, [dum]modo ne laudarent iracundium et dicerent utiliter a natura datam. ‘Moderation pleases the Peripatetics, and rightly so, if only [provided that] they had not praised quickness of temper and said that it was a useful gift of nature.’ 24.723 Meaning ‘until’ as a mere time limit using Indicative Mansit ibi dum ego redii. ‘He remained there until I returned.’ 24.724 Meaning ‘until’ with Subj. of purpose Lupus observavit dum dormitarent canes. ‘The wolf watched until the dogs dozed.’ Non mansit dum caperetur. ‘He did not wait until he was captured.’ 24.73 Time before which: priusquam, antequam Time before which is usually signified by priusquam and antequam. 24.731 Mere time limit with indicative Ante rorat quam pluit. ‘It drizzles before it rains.’ Membris utimur priusquam didicimus cuius ea utilitatis causa habeamus. ‘We use our limbs before we learn for the sake of what employment we have them.’ 24.732 Suggesting aim with purpose with subjunctive Priusquam te formarem in utero, novi te. ‘Before I formed you in the womb, I knew you.’ A 554-6 H 564-6 W 222-3 A 553 H 567-8 W 222, 224 A 550-1 H 564-5 W 225-228 91 III. THE COMPLEX SENTENCE A 544 W 229-39 A 545-8 H 559-60 A 549 Clauses Regularly Using Both Indicative and Subjunctive (§24.8–24.9) 24.8 Cum Clause The conjunction cum, originally quom, was a masculine, singular, accusative relative pronoun. It served as a relative adverb of time, ‘when’, alongside the demonstrative tum, ‘then’: Nos omnes facile consilia recta aegrotis damus [tum] quom valemus. ‘We all [then], when [we are] well, give good advice to the sick.’ This is sufficient to explain its mere temporal use with the indicative. Use of the subjunctive with cum seems to have developped through parallells to the relative clause of characteristic, as explained below. 24.81 With Indicative: Temporal Clause, ‘when’ Cum lego, adsentior, cum posui librum et coepi cogitare, adsensio omnis illa elabitur. ‘While I am reading, I agree, when I put the book down and begin to think, all that agreement slips away.’ 24.82 With Subjunctive The subjunctive seems reasonably enough to have entered cum clauses through the relative clause of characteristic (24.4). With ‘character’ added to the notion of time implied in cum/quom, the subjunctive cum clause implies some ‘circumstance’ attending the action in the clause upon which it depends. This may be neutral (24.821), aiding (24.822), or opposing (24.823). Often context alone determines which sense is intended: Haec cum Crassus dixisset, silentium est consecutum. English admits various translations here. The first translation, however, emplying ‘when’, does not merely suggest a relation of time between the clauses, but some ‘condition’. The other translations attempt to clarify the way in which the event described in the subordinate clause conditions the event described in the clause upon which it depends: 92 24. Mood ‘When Crassus had said these things, silence followed.’ ‘Although Crassus had said these things, silence followed.’ ‘Since Crassus had said these things, silence followed.’ It is unlikely that Latin speakers themselves considered these distinctions clearly. Note also that in indirect discourse, any subordinate clause is likely to take the subjunctive, even a temporal cum clause (26.214). 24.821 Circumstantial, ‘while’ Accepit enim agrum temporibus eis cum iacerent pretia praediorum. ‘He received the farm in times when the prices of estates were low. 24.822 Causal (Aiding Circumstance), ‘since’, ‘because’ Dolo erat pugnandum, cum par non esset armis. ‘It was necessary to fight by guile, since he was not a match in arms.’ 24.823 Consessive (Opposing Circumstance), ‘although’, ‘while’ Fuit perpetuo pauper, cum divitissimus esse posset. ‘He was always poor, although he might have been very rich.’ 24.9 Other Causal and Concessive Clauses 24.91 Mood Generally speaking, in causal and concessive clauses, the indicative represents what is signified by the subordinate clause as a fact or as the speaker’s belief, while the subjunctive represents it as a supposition or another’s belief, perhaps repudiated by the speaker. 24.92 Conjunction 24.921 Causal The common conjunctions for causal clauses (other than cum clauses) are quod, quia, quoniam, quando, quandoquidem, siquidem. They are often balanced by adverbs such as eo, ideo, propterea, idcirco (see example iii)). H 561 H578 H596 H 572-3 W 240 A 539-40 H 577, 579 W 241-3 93 III. THE COMPLEX SENTENCE A 526-7 H 598 W 244-9 i) T. Manlius Torquatus filium suum, quod is contra imperium in hostem pugnaverat, necare iussit. ‘T. Manlius Torquatus ordered his own son to be put to death, because he had fought against the enemy contrary to orders.’ ii) Laudat Africanum Panaetius quod fuerit abstinens. ‘Panaetius praises Africanus because he was temperate.’ iii) Quia natura mutari non potest, idcirco verae amiciticae sempiternae sunt. ‘Because nature cannot be changed, for that reason true friendships are everlasting.’ iv) Neque me vixisse paenitet, quoniam ita vixi ut non frustra me natum existumem. ‘Nor do I regret having lived, since I have so lived that I do not think I was born in vain.’ v) Quando virtus est affectio animi constans, ex ea proficiscuntur honestae voluntates. ‘Since virtue is a constant state of mind, honorable inclinations arise from it.’ vi) Crebris Pompei litteris castigabantur, quoniam primo venientem Caesarem non prohibuissent. ‘They were being reprimanded in Pompey’s frequent letters, because they had not hold back Caesar when first coming.’ 24.922 Concessive The common conjunctions are etsi, etiamsi, tametsi, quamquam (which emphasizes the clause), quamvis, licet. Two of these, quamvis and licet, are always followed by a subjunctive which is jussive in origin. i) Caesar, etsi nondum hostium consilium cognoverat, tamen fore id quod accidit suspicabatur. ‘Caesar, although he had not yet discovered the enemies’ plans, suspected that that would happen which did.’ 94 25. Si Clause ii) Me vera . . . loqui, etsi meum ingenium non moneret, necessitas cogit. ‘Necessity compels me to speak the truth . . . , even if my own nature did not urge me.’ iii) Inops ille, etiamsi referre gratiam non potest, habere certae potest. ‘This needy man, even if he cannot return a favour, can certainly feel gratitude.’ iv) Etiamsi propter amicitiam vellet illum ab inferis evocare, propter rem publicam non fecisset. ‘Even if he had been willing to call him from the dead because of friendship, for the sake of the common weal he would not have done so.’ v) Medici, quamquam intellegunt saepe, tamen nunquam aegris dicunt illo morbo eos esse morituros. ‘Doctors, though they often know, nevertheless never tell their patients that they are going to die from their disease.’ vi) Quamvis enim sine mente, sine sensu sis, tamen et te et tua et tuos nosti. ‘However senseless and insensitive you may be, yet you know yourself and your interests and your kin.’ vii) Sed omnia licet concurrant, Idus Martiae consolantur. ‘But although all things clash together, the Ides of March console me.’ 25 Si Clause (Conditional, Hypothetical) A conditional or ‘if . . . then . . . ’ sentence is composed of a ‘main’ clause and a dependent or subordinate clause called a ‘condition’. The Latin language, especially in the classical period, was much more careful in the use of conditional sentences than we are in English. The use of the conditional in medieval Latin, especially in scientific works, seems to have been influenced by Latin translations of Greek. Though Greek is as ‘careful’ in the moods and tenses used in conditional sentences, those employed are not always the same as those employed in Latin. One very important Latin conditional sentence employing Greek moods and tenses will be discussed below. A 511 W 191-200 95 III. THE COMPLEX SENTENCE A 512 A 514-5 H 581 W 194 25.1 Parts of Conditional Sentence The condition generally uses the conjunction si or ‘if’. The condition is also called the ‘protasis’. The clause on which the condition depends is called the ‘apodosis’. 25.2 General Division Eight kinds of conditional can be distinguished in Latin, with a few others described as ‘mixed conditionals’. Fortunately these conditionals can be grouped into two major categories, those that are ‘open’ to the condition and those which represent the condition as not true or not yet true. Hence there are three general kinds of condition: ‘open’, ‘unreal’, and ‘ideal’. [For other reasons it is useful to group the unreal and ideal conditions together in 25.5.] A condition that is as likely to be as not to be is called ‘open’: ‘If he is in town . . . ’ A condition that is denied altogether is called ‘unreal’: ‘If he were in town . . . ’ A condition which is denied as of now is called ‘ideal’: ‘If he should be in town . . . ’ Open conditions are further divided into open particular conditions, which concern things that happen in particular circumstances, and open general conditions, which concern things that happen in general circumstances, even to particular subjects. Open particular conditions are present (25.31), past (25.32), or future (25.33). Open general conditions may be present (25.41) or past (25.42). Unreal conditions may be present (25.51) or past (25.52). Ideal conditions are all future (25.53). What is said about the mood employed in the protasis applies to direct discourse. In indirect discourse the condition will generally be in the subjunctive. 25.3 Open Particular Conditions: Indicative Protasis The ‘open particular’ conditionals include ‘present’, ‘past’, and ‘future’ conditions. The condition or protasis uses the indicative and a tense that signifies the time described. Any mood that agrees with its sense can be used in the apodosis. Hence, even the imperative is possible: ‘If he comes, 96 25. Si Clause run!’ It must be emphsized that these particular conditions describe particular subjects in particular circumstances. A particular subject in general circumstances is described by a general condition. 25.31 Open Particular Present The present progressive is used in the protasis: Si hoc dicit, errat. ‘If he says (does now say) this, he is making a mistake.’ 25.32 Open Particular Past The present perfect (as a simple past) or past progressive is used in the protasis: Si hoc dixit, erravit. ‘If he said this, he made a mistake.’ Si hoc dicebat, errabat. ‘If he was saying this, he was making a mistake.’ 25.33 Open Particular Future (Future More Vivid) The future progressive or future perfect is used in the protasis. The future particular is often called the future more vivid. This name distinguishes it from the ‘future ideal’, discussed below at 25.53, which also called the ‘should-would’ condition. The future particular or future more vivid proposes ‘vividly’ that ‘If you [will] study, you will learn.’ The future ideal or future less vivid proposes with less ‘vivacity’ that ‘If you should study, you would learn.’ [Note that ‘If you would study, you would learn,’ means something slightly different. It refers to an act of will.] The future particular (future more vivid) sentences use the future indicative, progressive or perfect, in the si clause. Si hoc dicet, errabit. ‘If he says (is going to say) this, he will be making a mistake.’ Si hoc fecerit, poenas dabit. ‘If he does (will have done) this, he will be punished.’ This type of future clause, an open particular future conditional, with its protasis in the indicative, is often called the ‘future more vivid’. Here the clause merely states something as conceivably happening in the future. The apodosis usually takes the future indicative as well, as in the examples. A 516 97 III. THE COMPLEX SENTENCE A 518 H 581 W 194 W 195 W 196 25.4 Open General, usually with Indicative The ‘open general’ conditionals include only ‘present’ and ‘past’ conditions, though there are some variations on these. Either the generality of the condition still has force which includes the future (present general condition) or it had force for some time in the past (past general condition). The general condition may have a universal subject, but it may also describe a particular subject in general terms (If he comes [at any time] . . . = Whenever he comes . . . ) These conditionals use the indicative in the protasis (25.11) with very few exceptions (25.323, 25.324). Any mood that agrees with its sense can be used in the apodosis. Often these conditions are expressed in English with the conjunction ‘whenever’. ‘If my uncle comes, we have a good time,’ or ‘Whenever my uncle comes, we have a good time.’ ‘If my uncle came, we had a good time,’ or ‘Whenever my uncle came (used to come), we had a good time.’ 25.41 Present: Present Progressive in protasis and apodosis Si hoc dicit, errat. ‘If (every time) he says this, he errs.’ Si rosam vidit, putat ver incipere. ‘If (whenever) he sees a rose, he thinks spring has begun.’ 25.42 Past: Past Progresive or Perfect in protasis, Past Prog. in apodosis Si hoc dicebat, errabat. ‘If he said this, he was in error.’ Si peccaverat, poenas dabat. ‘If he sinned, he paid the penalty.’ 25.43 Second Person Present Subjunctive in protasis of Op. Gen. Pres. Si quid dicas, creditur. If you say (whenever anyone says) anything, it is believed. 25.44 Frequentative Subjunctive in protasis of Open General Past Si quid dixisset, credebatur. ‘If he said anything, it was believed.’ 98 25. Si Clause 25.5 Unreal or Ideal: Subjunctive in protasis and apodosis Some conditional sentences assume that what is stated in the hypothesis or si clause is not true or not yet true. These conditions are opposed to ‘open’ conditions. When such conditions describe the future, the condition may yet occur. But those describing the past or the present state something that has not in fact happened. Hence, such conditions are called ‘counterfactuals’. The Latin counterfactuals are two in number, a present counterfactual and a past counterfactual. Both use a past subjunctive in both clauses. 25.51 Pres. Counterfactual: Both in Past Prog. Subj. The present counterfactual uses the past progressive subjunctive in both parts Si hoc diceret, erraret. ‘If he said this, he would make (be making) a mistake.’ In English this counterfactual is particularly clear when used with the verb ‘to be’. ‘If he is the murderer. . . ’ as opposed to ‘If he were the murderer. . . ’ 25.52 Past Counterfactual: Both in Past Perf. Subj. The past counterfactual uses the past perfect subjunctive: Si hoc dixisset, erravisset. ‘If he had said this, he would have made a mistake.’ In English the past counterfactual can be clearly distinguished from mere historical questions with particularly clarity through the verb ‘to be’: ‘if Aristotle was a Platonist. . . ’ as opposed to ‘If Aristotle had been a Platonist. . . ’ 25.53 Future Ideal (Should-Would/Fut. Less Vivid): Both Prs. Sbj. The future ideal condition hesitates to admit that the condition will be fulfilled in the future. It does not, however, deny the condition altogether. The present subjunctive is used in the protasis. It appears to have its origin in the optative subjunctive. The subjunctive is also used in the apodosis. This use is apparently the potential subjunctive. W193, 197 A 517 H 583 A 517 H 583 A 516 H 582 99 III. THE COMPLEX SENTENCE Si hoc dicat, erret. ‘If he will say (says) this, he will be making a mistake.’ → ‘Should he say this, he would be making a mistake.’ The future ideal conditional is often called ‘should-would’ conditional or the ‘future less vivid’. [Note that ‘If you would study, you would learn,’ means something slightly different. It refers to an act of will.] 25.6 Mixed Future Conditional following Greek Construction As has been stated above (25.33 and 25.53) there are two ways of conceiving the future in conditonal clauses, the open future particular (future more vivid) and the future ideal (future less vivid). There is no general future conditional. Thus one Latin future condition is simply open to the possibility that something happens in the future. These sentences (25.33) use the future indicative, progressive or perfect, in the si clause. This is the open particular future conditional or the ‘future more vivid’, with its protasis in the indicative, is often called. Here the clause merely expresses something as conceivably happening in the future. The apodosis usually takes the future indicative as well, as in the examples in 25.33. The second type of future conditional (25.53) is an ideal future condition, often called a ‘should-would’ conditional or the ‘future less vivid’. Its protasis is in the present subjunctive. This condition hesitates to admit that the condition will be fulfilled in the future. It does not, however, deny the condition altogether. The present subjunctive is used in the protasis as well as the apodosis to express the speaker’s hesitation to admit the condition and what follows from such a condition. (Note that unreal or counterfactual clauses, and their apodoses, take some past subjunctive, to suggest that they are farther from reality.) Many Latin authors influenced by Greek philosophical and scientific texts often use a mix of these two conditional sentences. They present the protasis of a future condition in the present subjunctive and the apodosis in the future indicative or, less often, the present indicative. This conditional sentence seems to be derived from Greek, where it is one of the standard forms. 100 26. Reported Speech Si. . . formae substantiales [elementorum] non maneant, [hoc] videbitur esse corruptio elementorum et non mixtio [eorum]. ‘If the substantial forms of the elements should not remain, this will seem to be a corruption of the elements and not a compound of them.’ Si. . . forma ignis suscipiat magis et minus. . . speciem variabit et non erit eadem forma sed alia. ‘If the form of fire admits the more and the less, it will vary its species and will not be the same form, but another. It is unlikely, however, that this is merely another counterfactual. For this mixed condition will also appear in circumstances where it clearly describes what the author understands to be the case. So Galileo says, Si Mobile temporibus æqualibus duo pertranseat spatia, erunt ipsa spatia inter se ut velocitates. ‘If a mobile in equal times should pass through two spaces, the spaces will be among themselves as the velocities.’ 26 Reported Speech Reported speech involves one person ‘reporting’ not merely that someone said something but what another person has said: ‘He said, “The dog died.”’ ‘You said that it died’. In Latin, as in the English examples just given, assertions or statements can be reported directly or indirectly. Latin questions, however, are generally ‘reported’ indirectly, while a direct question is represented as immediately stated by the speaker or writer. Most direct questions are not ‘reported’. 26.1 Direct An assertion or statement is reported directly, when it retains its proper syntax, including person, tense, aspect, and so on. It is what we would call a quotation in English. In direct report, the word ‘introducing’ the quotation does not affect its syntax, except perhaps to interrupt it. W 262 101 III. THE COMPLEX SENTENCE W 263 W 264 A 577-90 H 663-76 W 29-32 26.11 with inquam The defective verb inquam (LMP 35.2) is used only to introduce direct report. Its remaining parts are used parenthetically, and so they do not disturb the syntax of the sentence: Aqua simplex, inquit, et elementum est. Aqua, inquam, partes habet et elementum non est. ‘Water, he says, is simple and an element. Water, I say, has parts and is not an element.’ Sometimes inquam is used to emphasize a particular word. Inquiunt is sometimes used with an indefinite subject. 26.12 with dico, loquor, aio, respondeo, exclamo Where inquam is lacking parts, other verbs serve the same purpose. Likewise, they do not disturb the proper syntax of the report. In later Latin these verbs are used even where parts of inquam are available. 26.2 Indirect 26.21 Indirect Discourse (Oblique Report) Indirect report or discourse does not ‘quote’. Rather it restates the statement from the perspective of the speaker. 26.211 Accusative-Infinitive Construction In the classical period the use of the accusative-infinitive construction became the preferred manner of reporting speech indirectly. (7.25, 7.252) Dicit eam venire. ‘He says she is coming.’ 26.212 Governed by quod meaning ‘that’ The earliest manner of reporting speech indirecly was by a noun clause introduced by quod meaning ‘that’. Dicit quod ea venit. ‘He says that she is coming.’ 102 26. Reported Speech 26.213 Governed by quia, quoniam, quomodo, quemadmodum In Christian Latin other conjunctions replace quod to form a noun clause of indirect discourse: Dicit quia ea venit. ‘He says that she is coming.’ Narrat quomodo ea venit. ‘He is telling how she is coming.’ 26.214 Subordinate Clause regularly takes subjunctive. As Woodcock states, ‘The verb of a clause which was subordinate in the direct form is regularly put in the subjunctive in oratio obliqua [reported speech], whether it was already in the subjunctive, or not.’ This is clear from the following quote from Saint Augustine, which clearly uses the subjunctive in reporting a pure temporal cum clause. Tenebam hoc ab eis uocari rem illam, quod sonabant, cum eam uellent ostendere. I held [i.e., thought] that that thing was called this which they sounded out, when they wished to point it out. 26.22 Indirect Question regularly uses subjunctive When questions are reported they regularly use the subjunctive. Some of these are derived from the deliberative or potential subjunctive. (24.1) But even a direct question using the indicative, quomodo scis?, ‘how do you know?’ is subordinated in the subjunctive, Quaero quomodo scias. ‘I ask how you know.’ These questions can be ‘classified’ according to the manner in which they are subordinated. 26.221 Yes or No Questions num or the enclitic -ne are used in such indirect questions without significan difference. Cicero uses nonne with quaero in the main sentence. Quaeris num disertus sit? ‘Do you ask whether he is a good speaker?’ Quaesivi cognosceretne signum. ‘I asked if he recognized the seal.’ Videte num dubitandum vobis sit. ‘See whether you should hesitate. W 272 A 573-6 H 660-2 103 III. THE COMPLEX SENTENCE 26.222 Alternative Questions Hoc quaeramus, verum sit an falsum. ‘Let us ask this, whether it is true or false.’ Quaesivi a Catilina in conventu fuisset, necne. ‘I asked of Catiline whether he had been at the meeting or not. 26.223 Pronoun Questions Cognoscit quae gerantur. ‘He knows what [things] are being done.’ Videtis ut omnes despiciat. ‘You can see how he despises everyone.’ 27 Sequence of Tenses (Tense of the Subjunctive Subordinate Clause) Latin is very careful in the coordination of finite verbs in the subordinate clause and the clause upon which it depends. The tense and aspect of the verb in the subordinate clause must clearly express the relation of this ‘action’ to the ‘action’ in the verb on which it depends. When the subordinate clause is in the indicative this coordination can be resolved to the question of time. Since the subjunctive does not signify time, but more or less removal from reality, its use in a subordinate clause is not as obvious. Careful observation and an understanding of some simple principles are necessary to make this coordination of a subjunctive subordinate clause (called the ‘sequence of tenses’) very clear. Three principles are involved in the ‘sequence of tenses’: 1) The distinction between primary and historical tenses in the finite verb of the ‘main’ clause. 2) Use of present subjunctive in dependence on primary tense and use of the past subjunctive in dependence on historical tenses. 3) Use of the progressive aspect to signfiy action incomplete at the time of the main verb and use of the perfect aspect to signify action complete at the time of the main verb. 104 27. Sequence of Tenses 27.1 Distinction of Tenses The most fundamental distinction is between tenses signfying the present and future, which are called the ‘primary’ tenses and those signifying the past, which are called ‘secondary’ or ‘historical’ tenses. The present perfect, such as amavit, presents a particular problem. Though it has as its original force the completion of action in the present, ‘I have loved’, this form commonly signifies the simple past, ‘I loved’. Thus, according to its original force, it serves as ‘primary’ tense, but, according to its force as a simple past, it is ‘secondary’ or ‘historical’. The finite verb in the subordinate clause must be chosen based on whether the clause on which it depends uses a primary or historical tense. Hence, one must observe whether the ‘main’ clause uses a primary or an historical tense. The primary tenses are (a) Present or Future Progressive Indicative (b) Present Perfect Indicative with Present Force (c) Present Progressive Subjunctive (d) Present (or Future) Imperative The secondary or ‘historical’ tenses are (a) Past Progressive or Perfect Indicative (b) Present Perfect Indicative with Past Force (c) Past Progressive Subjunctive (d) Past Perfect Subjunctive (e) Historical Infinitive 27.2 Sequence After Primary Tenses After primary tenses the present subjunctive is generally used. Another principle must be introduced to decide which of these to use, namely the force of aspect. A 482 H 524 A 485a A 483-5 H 525, 527-30 105 III. THE COMPLEX SENTENCE H 526, 531-4 27.21 Progessive Representing Action Incomplete at Time of Primary Tense After a primary tense, the present progressive subjunctive signifies an ‘action’ incomplete at the time of the primary tense, whether it has already begun or not. Te hortor ut Romam pergas. ‘I urge you to go to Rome.’ Efficiam ut intelligatis. ‘I will make you understand.’ 27.22 Perfect for Action Completed at Time of Primary Tense After a primary tense, the present perfect subjunctive represents an ‘action’ as complete at the time of the primary tense. Equo quid acceperim scio. ‘I know what I have received.’ An oblitus es quid initio dixerim? ‘Have you forgotten what I said at the start?’ Dicent quae statuerint. ‘They will tell what they decided on.’ 27.23 Future Participle with sim, sis, etc. To make clear that the action described in the subordinate clause has not begun at the time of the primary tense, the future participle with the present progressive subjunctive forms of sum, esse is used. Quam sum sollicitus quidnam futurum sit. ‘How anxious I am to know what is to be.’ In eam rationem vitae nos fortuna deduxit, ut sempiternus sermo de nobis futurus sit. ‘Fortune has led us into such a walk of life that there is always going to be talk about us.’ 27.3 Sequence After Secondary Tenses After secondary or ‘historical’ tenses, the past subjunctive is generally used. Another principle must be introduced to decide which of these to use, namely the force of aspect. 106 27. Sequence of Tenses 27.31 Progressive for Action Incomplete at Time of Main Verb After secondary or ‘historical’ tenses, the past progressive subjunctive signifies an ‘action’ as incomplete at the time of the historical tense, whether it has already begun or not: His rebus fiebat ut minus late vagerentur. ‘So it came to pass that they did not roam round much.’ Pausanias orare coepit ne enuntiaret neu se proderet. ‘Pausanias began to beg that he would not make the matter public nor betray him.’ 27.32 Perfect for Action Completed at Time of Main Verb After secondary or ‘historical’ tenses, the past perfect subjunctive signifies an ‘action’ as already complete (or as one that should have been completed) at the time of the historical tense: Docebat ut totius Galliae principatum Aedui tenuissent. ‘He showed how the Aeduans had had the mastery over all Gaul.’ Quas res in Hispania gessisset, disseruit. ‘He discoursed on what things he did in Spain.’ 27.321 Exception with Result (Consecutive) Clauses A past act or circumstance may have a result in the speaker’s present or future: In Lucullo tanta prudentia fuit ut hodie stet Asia Luculli institutis servandis. ‘In Lucullus there was such wisdom that Asia stands today by preserving the ordinances of Lucullus.’ Adeo victus est ut nunquam posthac pugnaturus sit. ‘He was beaten to such an extent that he will never fight again.’ 27.33 Future Participle with essem, esses, etc. To make clear that the action described in the subordinate clause has not begun at the time of the historical tense, the future participle with the past progressive subjunctive forms of sum, esse is used: W 162 107 III. THE COMPLEX SENTENCE Flaccus quid alii postea facturi essent scire non poterat. ‘Flaccus could not tell what other people were going to do.’ An Lacedaemonii quaesiverunt num se esset mori prohibiturus? ‘Did the Spartans ask whether he was going to prevent them from dying?’ 108 21.8 Latin Verbs: Common Formants Progressive System Perfect System Indicative Subjunctive Indicative Subjunctive Present Past Future Present Past Present Past Future Present Past — -a-/-ba-/-eba- -i-/-bi-/-e- -i-/-e-/-a- -se- — -era- -eri- (IO) -eri- (I) -isseVerbs Formants by Root Verb sum, esse su-/es- er-a- er-i- s-i- es-se- fu-i- fu-era- fu-eri- fu-eri- fu-isse- possum, posse possu-/potes- poter-a- poter-i- poss-i- pos-se- potu-i- potu-era- potu-eri- potu-eri- potu-isse- volo, velle volu-/vul- vol-eba- vol-e- vel-i- vel-(se→)le- volu-i- volu-era- volu-eri- volu-eri- volu-isse- nolo, nolle nol(u)- nol-eba- nol-e- nol-i- nol-(se→)le- nolu-i- nolu-era- nolu-eri- nolu-eri- nolu-isse- malo, malle mal(u)- mal-eba- mal-e- mal-i- mal-(se→)le- malu-i- malu-era- malu-eri- malu-eri- malu-isse- do, dare da- da-ba- da-bi- da/-e- da-(se→)re ded-i- ded-era- ded-eri- ded-eri- ded-isse- edo, esse ed- ed-eba- ed-e- ed+ a-/i- e(d→)s-se- ed-i- ed-era- ed-eri- ed-eri- ed-isse- eo, ire e-/i- i-ba- i-bi- e-a- i-(se→)re- i(v)-i- i(v)-era- i(v)-eri- i(v)-eri- i(v)-isse- fero, ferre fer- fer-eba- fer-e- fer-a- fer-(se→)re- tul-i- tul-era- tul-eri- tul-eri- tul-isse- fio, fieri fi- fi-eba- fi-e- fi-a- fi-e-(se→)reStems Formants by Stem Ending -˘e ˘e- ˘e/-eba- ˘e/-e- ˘e/-a- ˘e-(se→)re- -i- -era- -eri- -eri- -isse- -a a- a-ba- a-bi- a/-e- a-(se→)re- -i- -era- -eri- -eri- -isse- -e e- e-ba- e-bi- e-a- e-(se→)re- -i- -era- -eri- -eri- -isse- -i i- i-eba- i-e- i-a- i-(se→)re- -i- -era- -eri- -eri -isse- reg˘e-re- rex-isse- cap˘e-re- cep-isse- lauda-re laudav-isse- mone-re- monu-isse- audi-re- audiv-isse- reg˘e/-a- rex-eri- (I) capi-a- cep-eri- (I) lauda/-e laudav-eri- (I) mone-a- monu-eri- (I) audi-a- audiv-eri- (I) reg˘e/-e- (-am) rex-eri- (IO) capi-e- (-am) cep-eri- (IO) lauda-bi laudav-eri- (IO) mone-bi- monu-eri- (IO) audi-e- (-am) audiv-eri- (IO) reg˘e/-eba- rex-era- capi-eba- cep-era- lauda-ba laudav-era- mone-ba- monu-era- audi-eba- audiv-era- reg˘e- (IOU) rex-i- capi- (IOU) cep-i- lauda- (O) laudav-i- mone- (O) monu-i- audi- (IOU) audiv-i- rego, regere, rexi, rectum capio, cap˘ere, cepi, captum laudo, -are, -avi, -atum moneo, -¯ere, -ui, -itum audio, -ire, -ivi, -itum -t -nt -tur -ntur -it -erunt -to -nto -tor -ntor -s -tis -re/-ris -mini -isti -istis —/-to -te/-tote -re/-tor -mini -m/-o -mus -(o)r -mur -i -imus — — — — Personal Endings “R Passive” Present Perfect Active Imperative Passive Imperative